Piprahwa Relics of Buddha Return Home to India

 

The Piprahwa relics of Lord Buddha have returned to India after 127 years. The holy remains were discovered by British civil engineer and landowner William Claxton Peppé in 1898 from Piprahwa, the ancient site of Kapilavastu in the Siddharthnagar district of Uttar Pradesh. Piprahwa is just south of Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha in Nepal. 

The Piprahwa site contained a massive sandstone coffer housing the relics, including sacred bones and ashes, precious gemstones and soapstone as well as crystal reliquaries. 

Five caskets, including a crystal casket believed to be over 2,300 years old, were unearthed during excavations. Buried 18 feet underground these caskets contained sacred relics associated with Lord Buddha. Inscribed in early Brahmi script, one of the oldest known in any Indian language, an urn identified the depositors as members of the Buddha’s own Shakya clan, who had enshrined here the relics of the Buddha.

William Claxton Peppé’s excavation of the Piprahwa relics in 1898 has been referred to as “one of the most astonishing archaeological finds of the modern era”. 

The majority of these relics were transferred to the Indian Museum in Kolkata in 1899. However, a portion of the relics retained by the Peppé family was taken away from India  and was listed for auction.

The repatriation of the Piprahwa relics was announced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi who said it was a “joyous day for our cultural heritage”.

Originally slated for auction in Hong Kong in May 2025, the sacred artefacts were successfully secured by the Ministry of Culture. 

 

PM Modi Visits Gangaikonda Cholapuram To Celebrate Rajendra Chola’s Exploits

Today on July 27, 2025, Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited the ancient capital of the imperial Cholas built by emperor Rajendra Chola - I (regnal years 1012-1044 CE). Participating in the valedictory function of ‘Aadi Thiruvathirai’ festival marking the birth anniversary of Rajendra Chola, Mr Modi released a commemorative coin to celebrate the 1000 years of naval expedition of Rajendra Chola - I. 

To commemorate his successful military expedition to the Gangetic plains, Rajendra Chola founded a new capital and called it Gangaikonda Cholapuram, identified with modern Gangaikonda Cholapuram in the Ariyalur district of Tamil Nadu. 

Brihadisvara Temple Gangaikonda Cholapuram / Image Credit

Rajendra Chola also built the Shiva temple in Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Known as Brihadisvara Temple, this temple has a similar name as the one built by his father Raja Raja I in Thanjavur. A UNESCO World Heritage site, this temple is adorned with exquisite granite sculptures.  

Rajendra Chola I: Worthy Son of Legendary Father
Rajendra Chola I is one of two greatest kings of the Chola dynasty which, one of three ancient dynasties in the Tamil tradition, again rose in the middle of the 9th century and ruled for well neigh three centuries over a large part in South India with their capital at Tanjuvur (modern Tanjore also Thanjavur).

The power of the Chola dynasty reached its pinnacle during the reigns of Rajendra Chola (1014- 1042) and his father Rajaraja I (985-1014). Rajendra Chola was the worthy son and successor of his father. Though he succeeded to the Chola throne in 1014, his regal years are counted from 1012 AD when he was declared heir-apparent.

By his military prowess and administrative skill, Rajendra Chola raised the Chola power to the zenith of glory. Probably in 1017 AD, he conquered the whole of Sri Lanka, the northern part of which was already annexed to the Chola empire during the reign of his father Rajaraja I.

In the next year (1018 AD) Rajendra Chola forced the rulers of Kerala and the Pandyan country to accept the suzerainty of the Cholas. He defeated the Western Chalukya power under Jayasimha II Jagadekamalla (c. 1016-42). 

Rajendra also came in conflict with the Pala ruler of Bengal, Mahipala I, and his armies spread their victorious wings as far as the Ganges. To commemorate this daring victory, he assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (The Chola conquer of the Ganga) and founded a new capital named after him - Gangaikonda – Cholapuram, identified with modern Gangaikondapuram in the Ariyalur district of Tamil Nadu.

Rajendra Chola possessed a powerful fleet and is credited with sending a great naval expedition which occupied parts of South East Asia including Myanmar, Malaya and Sumatra. This naval expedition, unique in the annals of Indian history, was undertaken to presumably suppress the piratical activities of the Indonesian rulers, which were an obstacle to the flourishing trade between China and the South India.

Rajendra Chola is known by a variety of titles such as Tyagasamudra, Gangaikonda and Pandita Chola.   

Binoy, Badal and Dinesh: Epitome of Valour

Writer's Buildings / Image Credit

Showing exemplary courage three Bengali revolutionaries – Benoy Krishna Basu, Badal Gupta, and Dinesh Chandra Gupta - barged into the historic Writer's Buildings in Calcutta on 8th December 1930 and shot dead the then Bengal's IG (Prisons) Lt Col N S Simpson who was notorious for his atrocities and physical torture of Indian freedom fighters. In the gun battle that ensued the trio seriously wounded several European high officials.

Members of the Bengal Volunteers, a group set up by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose at the Calcutta Session of the Indian National Congress in 1928, these revolutionaries had worn western suits to gain access to the Writer's Building, the seat of the government of undivided Bengal. 

Refusing to surrender to the British, Badal Gupta immediately took potassium cyanide and died instantly, while Benoy and Dinesh shot themselves with their firearms. Benoy died in a hospital on December 13, 1930, while Dinesh survived. Dinesh was later hanged to death on 7 July 1931. Later Kanailal Bhattacharjee avenged the death of Dinesh by killing the judge who had sentenced the latter to death. 

Earlier Lowman, the Inspector General of Police, was shot dead by Benoy Basu in August in 1930. Lowman was known for his brutal oppression of the prisoners.  

Dinesh Gupta was born in 1911 while Benoy Basu was born in 1908 and Badal Gupta was born in 1912.  

The area where Writer's Buildings is located is known as BBD (Benoy, Badal Dinesh) Bagh in honour of the trio. Earlier the area was named Dalhousie Square.

India Celebrates 169th Birth Anniversary of Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Today India is celebrating the 169th birth anniversary of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a leading light of Indian freedom struggle. 

Of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Edwin Samuel Montagu, British Secretary of State for India between 1917 and 1922, said, "Tilak is at the moment probably the most powerful man in India".

One of the famous triumvirate called “Lal-Bal-Pal”, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was born on July 23, 1856 in Ratnagiri district in the Konkan region of Maharashtra. 

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was educated in Poona where had co-founded Fergusson College, a landmark educational institution in Maharashtra. A scholar in mathematics, law and Sanskrit, Tilak was one of the founders of the Deccan Education Society in 1884, with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Madhavrao Namjoshi  and Vishnushastri Chipalunkar being the other members. 

During Home Rule movement which he started in 1914 Bal Gangadhar was given the epithet of Lokamanya (Universally Respected). 

Tilak was imprisoned several times by the British authorities on charges of sedition. In July 1908, he was imprisoned for six years on charges of sedition and sent to Mandalay Jail in present-day Myanmar where he wrote Gita Rahasya or Bhagavad Gita . The Arctic Home in the Vedas was also written by Tilak. 

The nationalist poet Subramania Bharati translated Tilak’s Tenets of the New Party into Tamil. 

Tilak had launched two newspapers, Kesari (in Marathi) and Mahratta (in English). His trenchant criticism of colonial rule through these newspapers earned him the ire of the British administration.

Tilak initiated two important festivals, Ganesh in 1893 and Shivaji in 1895.

In 1916 Tilak signed the historic Lucknow Pact, also known as the Congress–Muslim League Pact. 

Tilak breathed his last in Bombay on August 1, 1920. Gandhi wrote of him in Young India on August 4, 1920: 

“A giant among men has fallen. The voice of the lion is hushed… He knew no religion but love of his country. He was a born democrat. He believed in the rule of majority with an intensity that fairly frightened me…No man preached the gospel of swaraj with the consistency and the insistence of Lokamanya.” 

Famous Quotes from Bal Gangadhar Tilak 

"Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!"

'If God were to tolerate untouchability, I would not recognise Him as God at all.'' 

Additional Information

Tilak was called "father of Indian unrest" by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol, a British journalist. 

Cellular Jail: Torturous British Penal Colony

Cellular Jail Andaman / Image Credit

One of the main attractions of Port Blair, the capital of the Union Territory of Andaman & Nicobar Islands in India, is Cellular Jail, where Indian freedom fighters and revolutionaries were imprisoned during the Indian struggle for Independence.  The jail was also known as Kālā Pānī, translating literally as “black waters”. 

The three-storied massive structure bears testimony to the inhumane atrocities on them by the British. Built in 1906, this colossal monument, now declared a National Memorial, features a unique sound and light show taking you right back in time, when Indian people were engaged in fierce struggle with the British for the achievement of their freedom from the colonial rule. The jail was originally built with seven wings which had rows of single iron-gated cells – 693 in total, specially built for the solitary confinement of the prisoners. 

Notable inmates  of the Cellular Jail also, known as Kala Pani, were  Batukeshwar Dutt, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Babarao Savarkar, Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Hare Krishna Konar, Bhai Parmanand, Sohan Singh, Ullaskar Dutta, Indu Bhushan Roy, Mahavir Singh, Mohan Kishor Namdas, Mohit Moitra. Barindra Kumar Ghosh. The brutal treatment of the prisoners drove Indu Bhushan Roy to commit suicide while Ullaskar Dutta had lost his mind.

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar had referred to the inhuman treatment meted out to the inmates by the Irish jailor David Barrie, the self-declared “God of Port Blair”.

 

Akkadevi: Beauty of Virtues

Western Chalukya Temple Galaganatha Temple, Haveri district, Karnataka

Akkadevi (1010 CE- 1064 CE) was a Kalyani Chalukya princess who governed parts of present-day Karnataka in the 11th century CE. She was a governor of an area known as Kishukadu, situated in the present-day districts of Bidar, Bagalkot, and Vijayapura in the state.

Akkadevi was the sister of Jayasimha II (1015-1042), the Kalyani Chalukya ruler. There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami or Vatapi (also known as early western Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Vengi (also known as eastern Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Kalyani (also known as western Chalukyas) and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

The Chalukyas of Kalyani ruled from 957 to 1200. 

Akkadevi had supressed many rebellions displaying great valour and courage which led her to be called Bhairavi.

Early this year two gold  coins of Akkadevi were found near Madugula village in the Mahbubnagar district of Telangana. 

Akkadevi  was also called Gunadabedangi translated as “Beauty of Virtues”.

Last Days of Akbar

Akbar's Mausoleum 

The last days of the Mughal Emperor Akbar proved to be unhappy due to rebellion of his son Salim, who succeed him under the title of Jahangir. 

Salim was eager to ascend the throne and even entered into intrigues with Portuguese to achieve his end. He even hurt Akbar by commissioning the murder of Abul Fazal (brother of Faizi), author of Akbarnama, by Vir Singh Bundela. 

The Mughal court became divided into two factions, one favouring the succession of Salim while the other, led by Raja Man Singh (Khusrau's maternal uncle), plotted to secure succession of Salim’s son Khusrav. In fact, Khusrav was also Akbar’s choice. However, before his death Akbar pardoned Salim and nominated him as his successor. Akbar died of diarrhoea on c 25th October in 1605.

Akbar’s tomb is at Sikandara, situated on the outskirts of the Agra City. Housing his mortal remains, the mausoleum was built by the emperor himself during his lifetime. The mausoleum was finished in 1613 during the reign of Jahangir. 

Akbar and His Concubines

As with case with many ancient and medieval cultures, in addition to their legal wives, the rulers have also kept concubines as well. And Mughal rulers were no exceptions. In most cases, these concubines’ served the same purposes as wives. However, they could not legally the men that they served.

These concubines also became the mothers of children of the Mughal monarchs. The children born of these concubines were treated on par with those born of the legal wives. Akbar was a famous keeper of many concubines some of whom bore children to him. Two of Akbar’s three sons, Murad and Daniyal were born of concubines. According to English traveller William Finch, Anarkali who have been portrayed in films and books as the valentine of Saleem (Later Jahangir the fourth Mughal Emperor) was the mother of Daniyal.

The concubines lived in an area which is known in Muslim culture as harem. The harem was not accessible for the male members.

12 Maratha Forts Now India's 44th UNESCO's World Heritage Site

12 Maratha forts of 'Maratha Military Landscapes', representing extraordinary fortification and military system envisioned by the Maratha rulers, have been inscribed on the prestigious UNESCO World Heritage List.

The decision to include 12 forts in the list was taken during the ongoing 47th session of the World Heritage Committee (WHC) being held in Paris.

"New inscription on the @UNESCO #WorldHeritage List: Maratha Military Landscapes of India, #India," UNESCO said in a post on X.

The nomination for UNESCO tag was for the 2024-25 cycle.

Now India has 44 of its sites on the list. The country ranks sixth globally and second in the Asia Pacific Region for the most number of World Heritage Sites. 

Spread across the Indian states of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, 12 forts are Salher, Shivneri, Lohgad, Khanderi, Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, and Sindhudurg in Maharashtra, along with Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu.

Of the 12 forts eight are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) while the other forts are protected by the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Maharashtra. 

While Shivneri fort, Lohgad, Raigad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala fort, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg and Gingee fort are protected under the Archaeological Survey of India whereas Salher fort, Rajgad, Khanderi fort and Pratapgad are protected by the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Maharashtra.

Belonging to the period from the 17th to 19th centuries CE, this network of twelve forts demonstrates the strategic military vision and architectural ingenuity of the Maratha Empire.

Last year Moidams, the 700-year-old mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty in Assam were inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List at the 46th Session of the World Heritage Committee held in New Delhi, becoming the first cultural site from the Northeast India to make it to the coveted list.

12 forts Maratha Military Landscapes

Salher Fort

Image Credit - Shirishghan

Shivneri Fort

                                                Shivneri Fort / Image Credit: DRONAH

Located near Junnar in Pune district in Maharashtra, Shivneri Fort comes lauded as the birthplace of Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. 

Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu

Situated atop three hillocks — Rajagiri, Krishnagiri, and Chandragiri in Tamil Nadu's Villupuram district, the Gingee Fort was built in the 12th century by the rulers belonging to the Konar Dynasty.  

Later it came under the control of many dynasties that included the Vijayanagar Empire, Marathas, Mughals, Arcot's Nawabs (Carnatic Nawabs), the French, and the British.

Called ‘Troy of the East’ by the British, the Gingee Fort is known for its invincibility and immense fortifications which made Maratha ruler Chhatrapati Shivaji to rank

 it as the "most impregnable fortress in India". The fort was captured by  Shivaji in 1677. After remaining under the Maratha possession till 1698 it came under the control of the Mughals. In 1714 the Arcot Nawabs captured the fort from the Bundela Rajput Raja Desingh (Tej Singh) by killing him who ruled Gingee for a short time in the same year. Desingh's wife committed sati on his funeral pyre.  

Gingee remained under the control of Arcot Nawabs till 1749. The fort came under the French power from 1750 to 1770 before the British finally took control of Gingee in 1761. 

Gingee Fort

Raigad Fort

Originally called Rairi, Raigad fort is surrounded by valleys shaped by the Kal and Gandhari rivers. The fort was chosen as Shivaji's capital in 1674. Grant Duff (1789 – 1858), a British administrator-historian of the Maratha period, had compared Raigad to the Rock of Gibraltar and labeled Raigad as the Gibraltar of the East.

In 1653 CE, Raigad was captured by the Maratha forces from the Mores. In order to make the fort worthy of being a capital, Shivaji Maharaj assigned the work of reconstruction of the fort to architect Hiroji Indulkar. Subsequently, on 6th June, 1674 CE a grand coronation ceremony of Shivaji Maharaj was held on Raigad post, during which he attained the title of “Chhatrapati (Lord of the Umbrella, or king of kings)”. The fort served as the second capital of Shivaji and played an important role in the administration and expansion of the Maratha Kingdom.

Sindhudurg Fort

Lohagad fort 

Lohagad Fort / Image Credit

10 km from Malavali railway station, Lohagad fort is situated on the top of a hill. Located at an altitude of 1025 meters, the fort is perched on an enormous cliff of sheer rock in the Sahyadris hills.

Suvarnadurg

Suvarnadurg

Suvarnadurg fort meaning The Golden Fort, is located on a small island in the Arabian Sea, near Harnai village in Ratnagiri district of Konkan. It is near the town of Dapoli.  

Pratapgad

The famous and formidable Pratapgad fort located on a hilltop was the place where Afzal Khan, one of the foremost nobles and generals of Deccan's Adil Shahi dynasty, was killed by Shivaji when the former went to the this fort to eliminate the Maratha ruler.  

In 1659 Ali Adil Shah sent Afzal Khan to bring Shivaji back to Bijapur dead or alive. In order to apprehend Shivaji, Afzal Khan proposed a meeting with Shivaji, promising him pardon and grant of territory. In the meeting that ensued Afzal Khan tried to attack Shivaji with a dagger while embracing him. But Shivaji was able to kill Afzal with gloves with steel claws (bahgh nakh).

Nizam Shahi Dynasty of Ahmadnagar

 

Tomb of Ahmed Nizam Shah. Photo: Wikimedia Commons

Ahmadnagar Sultanate, known more famously as the Nizam Shahi Dynasty, was one of the five independent states that arose on the debris of the Bahmani Sultanate. The Sultanate derives its name from Ahmadnagar, the seat of the power, which is 120 km northeast of Pune and located in the state of Maharashtra.

Nizam Shahi dynasty was founded by Malik Ahmad, son of Hasan Nizamul Mulk, wazir (Prime Minister) of the Bahmani kingdom after Mahmud Gawan’s execution in 1481. Mahmud Gawan was a renowned Islamic scholar who rose in ranks to become the wazir of the Bahmani kingdom. Malik Ahmad, who was appointed to the governorship of Junnar, asserted his independence in 1490. He transferred his seat of government from Junnar to Ahmadnagar which he founded in 1494. During his rule Daulatabad became part of the Ahmadnagar kingdom in 1499.

After Ahmad’s death in 1510, he was succeeded by his son Burhan, a lad of seven years at that time. Burhan, the first of the Nizam Shahis to assume the title of Nizam Shah, ruled for forty-three years. His interests were ably served by his able minister Mukammal Khan Dakhini. Ahmadnagar, during his reign, changed sides and joined coalition with the kingdoms of   Bidar, Bijapur. Golcunda and Berar and Vijayanagar against one another. He joined a coalition of Vijayanagar ruler against Bijapur in 1550. After his death in 1553 Burhan was succeeded by his son Husain Shah Nizami who joined the Deccan Muslim Sultanates against the Vijayanagar in the famous Battle of Talikota in 1665. The great city of Hampi, the seat of the Vijayanagar empire, was sacked after the defeat of the Vijayanagar Raya. 

Husain died in 1665 and was succeeded by his son Murtada Nizam Shah I (1565-88). During his rule, the Imad Shahi dynasty came to an end with the annexation of Berar to the Ahmadnagar kingdom in 1574. However, after this, Murtada lost his mental balance and began to consider his own son Miran to be his adversary. On the other hand, Miran conspired against his father and suffocated him to death while he was in his bed. This happened in 1588. Miran did not reign long and was succeeded by Ismail (1589-91) who ruled for two years. His reign was marked by the struggle for power between the Shias and the Mahdawi sect. Ismail’s father , Burhan Nizam Shah II, defeated his son’s army and ascended the Ahmadnagar throne. Burhan suffered a series of defeats at the hands of Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Adil Shahi dynasty. He was also unsuccessful in recovering Chaul from the Portuguese. It was during Burhan’s reign that Burhan  I – Ma’athir was compiled.

Burhan Nizam Shah II was succeeded by his son Ibrahim whose rule lasted for only four months. Confusion reigned supreme in the Ahmadnagar kingdom as there were four claimants to the throne. While one of them was supported by Chand Bibi, daughter of Husain Nizam Shah and widow of Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur, Miyan Manjhu threw his weight with another. Miyan Manjhu asked for help from Mughal emperor Akbar’s son prince Murad who responded by besieging the Ahmadnagar fort. Chand Bibi fought gallantly but in the end in 1596 she was forced to enter into an agreement with the Mughals, ceding Berar to the Mughal empire. Peace, however, did not last long and the Mughals again laid siege to the capital. It was during the second attack that Chand Bibi was either murdered or took poison and lost her life (1600).

However, the sagging fortunes of the Ahmadnagar empire were revived by Ahmandnagar’s Abyssinian minster Malik Ambar. He was a thrice manumitted Abyssinian (Ethiopian) slave who is known in the medieval period as a great statesman and able administrator. Deciding not to surrender to the Mughal might, he raided the Mughal territory with great effect by means of guerrilla tactics. He installed Murtaza II as ruler of Nizam Shahi dynasty with his capital at Parenda. Malik Ambar’s gallant resistance to the Mughal forces ended when he was defeated by Mughal Prince Khurram first in 1617 and again in 1621. Applauding his role in this victory, Prince Khurram was given by his father Jahangir, the fourth Mughal Emperor, the title of Shah Jahan (King of the World). Malik Ambar’s death in 1626 was the last nail in the Ahmadnagar Sultanate's coffin. Murtada III, the last Nizam Shahi ruler, was captured by Aurangzeb during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1636. The Nizam Shahi territories were divided between the Mughals and the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur.

Adilabad Fort - Jahanpanah, Delhi

Situated southeast of the adjacent Tughlaqabad Fort, on the opposite side of the Badarpur-Mehrauli road, the relatively unknown Adilabad fort has for long been in the shadows of Tughlaqabad Fort which was built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), the third of the five dynasties, the combination of which went on to be called the Delhi Sultanate.

Located near the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, the Adilabad fort (also known as Muhammadabad), on its part, was built by his son Juna Khan, better known as Muhammad bin Tughluq, who succeeded his father in 1325. The Adilabad fort was incorporated into the fortified city of Jahanpanah built by Muhammad bin Tughluq. 

When it comes to bastion and walls Adilabad Fort, though small in size, bears striking resemblance to the Tughlaqabad Fort. 

Delhi Sultanate Quiz

Q.1 Which Delhi Sultanate ruler was killed in Battle?

(A) Ibrahim Lodi

(B) Razia Sultan 

(C) Muḥammad bin Tughlaq

(D) Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq

Answer: A

Ibrahim Lodi was defeated at the First Battle of Panipat (April 21, 1526) by Babur who laid the foundation of Mughal empire in India.

During the battle Ibrahim lost his life, the first and only Delhi Sultan to die in battle. 

Rajon ki Baoli- Lodi Era stepwell

Located in Mehrauli Archaeological Park in Delhi, Rajon ki Baoli is a four-tiered stepwell featuring elegant arched colonnades, ornate stucco medallions with floral and geometric patterns, and finely carved stone elements.

This baoli (reservoir) was built in the early years of 16^th century during the rule of Lodi dynasty of Delhi Sultanate. With an area of 1,610 square meters, this Baoli descends to a depth of 13.4 meters, with the main tank measuring 23 by 10 meters at its base.

Rajon ki Baoli was recently restored by Archaeological Survey of India in collaboration with World Monuments Fund India (WMFI) and TCS (Tata Consultancy Services) Foundation.

How Buddhism Came to Tibet

In ancient times Tibet was not an isolated region as it is today. It lay in the much frequented route from China and Nepal. Buddhism was introduced to Tibet by Srong-tsan Gampo, one of the most illustrious kings of Tibet in the seventh century AD. 

Gampo was married to Princesses Wen Cheng from China and another Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal. It was under the influence of his two wives that he was attracted to Buddhism. In China and Nepal Buddhism had already made its mark. Gampo is credited with introducing in Tibet Indian alphabets. This was the beginning of a new culture and civilisation in that land.

Many Buddhist from Tibet, as in the case of China, came to India. Buddhist monks from Tibet came to study at the universities of Nalanda, Vikramshila and Odantapuri. As a reciprocation, many Indian Buddhist visited Tibet. In the eighth century AD from Nalanda (a famous centre of learning in ancient Bihar) Buddhist monk Padmasambhava went to Tibet and succeeded in converting the land into Buddhism.

The Pala rulers of Bengal (Bihar was included in Bengal at that time) who were great patrons of Buddhism, contributed a lot to reform Buddhism in Tibet. Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thunderbolt) form of Buddhism was established in Tibet in the eleventh century AD as a result of missions sent from the Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila in Bihar. Vajrayana is synonymous with Tantric Buddhism. Great Buddhist monk Atish Dipankar from Bengal, who visited Tibet in the 11th century during the reign of Nayapala, is still venerated there.

Many Buddhist works have been translated into Tibetan. Tanjur and Kanjur are the two classical Tibetan translations of Buddhist sacred texts .

Talagirishwara temple at Tamil Nadu's Panamalai

Talagirishwara temple at Panamalai / Image Credit

Talagirishwara temple at Panamalai in Villupuram district of Tamil Nadu was built by Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, popularly known as Rajasimha, who is also credited with  commisioning the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage site, and the Kailasanatha Temple in Kanchipuram. 

Bimbisara: First Great Emperor of India

Bamboo garden (Venuvana) at Rajagriha, the visit of Bimbisara / Image Credit

Magadha was one of the 16 great kingdoms or mahajanapadas in India between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. Apart from Asmaka or Assaka, all the other fifteen mahajanpadas were located in Northern India.  Assaka was located in what is now present-day territory comprising Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra. 

The most remarkable king of the Haryanka dynasty of the Magadhan kingdom in the 6th century BC was Bimbisara, also known as Srenika. He ascended the throne in c 545 B.C. He was the first Indian ruler who conceived the idea of an extensive empire. 

He embarked on a policy of imperialism by conquering the little kingdom of Anga which had its capital at Champa near modern Bhagalpur in Bihar. In ancient times, the port city of Champa was of substantial commercial significance.

Though Anga was the only conquest of Bimbisara, he strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances with other kingdoms. His marriage with Kosala Devi, a sister of Prasenjit of Kosala kingdom, brought him the part of Kasi (Varanasi). He was also married to Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka, the Licchavis king of Vaishali. Chetaka was the brother of Trishala, mother of Mahavir (founder of Jainism).  Another wife of Bimbisara was Khema who was born into the royal family of Madra in central Punjab. 

Bimbisara's capital was Raajgriha, the modern Rajgir in the Nalanda district of Bihar. A contemporary of Buddha Bibmisara was his follower. He had offered Buddha and his followers his favourite park and pleasure garden, Veluvana (Bamboo Grove) in Rajgriha for their residence.

An energetic ruler, Bimbisara did not tolerate inefficient officials who were summarily dismissed. He is credited with building roads and causeways for the benefits of his subjects.

Bimbisara was in diplomatic contact with Pushkarasarin, the ruler of Gandhara, whose kingdom also included Taxila. One of the 16 great kingdoms or mahajanapadas, Gandhara  region was in what is now northwestern Pakistan, corresponding to the Vale of Peshawar and valleys of Swat rivers.

Bimbisara Jail in Rajagriha in Bihar

/ Image Credit

Bimbisara was deposed, imprisoned and murdered by his son Ajatashatru in about 494 B.C. 

Ruins of the jail where Bimbisara was imprisoned and murdered by his son Ajatashatru