Indian History

The Sepoy munity of 1857, also known as First War of Indian Independence, was not the first movement of various classes of people to overthrow the British rule. Anti-British sentiments emerged shortly after the annexation of the province of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa by Warren Hastings in 1772. One such revolt that was of a great significance was the Faqir Uprising of Bengal that took place in 1776-77 and had the potential of shaking the very foundation of the nascent British rule in India. Soon after the annexation of Bengal, in 1776-77 a group of wandering Muslim religious mendicants known as faqirs, started against the British authority an agitation which came to be known as Faqir Uprising of Bengal. Manjum Shah was the pioneer of this revolt, these faqirs under his leader began to levy tax on the zamindars and peasants. This was in defiance of the British authority. After Manjum Shah’s death, Chirag Ali Shah became the leader of the group and under his leadership the uprising spread

The comparison of Mir Taqi Mir with Mirza Ghalib reminds me of the debate on Christopher Marlowe vs Shakespeare. As a matter of fact, Mirza Ghalib himself says that Mir Taqi Mir is really great. He wrote a couplet about this: Reekhta kay tumhi ustaad nahi ho Ghalib Kehte hain agle zamane me koi Mir bhi tha You are not the only master of poetry, Ghalib They say there used to be a Mir in the past Known as Khuda-e-Sukhan'(God of poetry), Mir Taqi Mir was born in Agra in 1723 and died in 1810 in Lucknow. This year marked the 200th death anniversary of Mir. He moved to Delhi at the age of 11 after his father's death. When the prestige of the Mughal Empire began to wane and chaos began to reign supreme due to the constant invasions from the foreign powers including Ahmad Shah Abdali, Mir moved to the court of Asaf-ud-Daula Nawab of Oudh in Lucknow. In 1782 Mir came to Lucknow, where he breathed his last on September 21, 1810. One of Mir’s ghazals, `Dikhaai diye yun ke bekhud kiya, h

The importance of Ashokan inscriptions is immense. This can be gauged from the fact that till the decipherment of the languages of the his inscriptions by  James Prinsep , the world had been cracking their brains as to historicity of this great king, referred to as ‘ Piyadassi ’ in the Sri Lankan chronicles  Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa .  James Prinsep, an official of the Calcutta Mint and secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, was able to read the inscriptions in 1837. In fact, the inscriptions of Asoka are the oldest surviving written documents of any historical significance. These inscriptions comprise a series of edicts engraved on rocks and pillars throughout different places in his empire which stretched from the valley of Oxus to Kaveri delta in south India. The Asokan edicts are in the nature of official pronouncement of policy, and instructions to his officers and subjects.  The inscriptions of Ashoka are written in two scripts known as Brahmi and Kharosthi . Like the Eu

Written in Pali language in the fifth century AD, the Sri Lankan Chronicle Mahavamsa is mainly a history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Composed by Mahanama Thera , the Buddhist Chronicle also gives reliable information on political history of India. Mahavamsa has also great literary merit. It contains several passages of immense beauty. The passage describing the capture of Vijitanagara , the capital of the Tamil invader Elara , by the Sinhalese national hero, King Dutthagamani (161-137 BC) with aid of his favourite elephant, Kandula . is indeed one of the jewels in the crown. Mahavamsatika or Vamsatthapakasini , a commentary on Mahavamsa , was composed in the 10th century AD.

Before the introduction of the Buddha’s images, wheel, an empty throne, footprints, pipal trees, stupas were the symbols used for his remembrance. Why the Buddha was symbolized in such a way even many centuries after his death is not known. One reason may be that he was so venerated that it was blasphemous to depict the Buddha. However, there is no evidence to confirm this. Hence, there are no image of the Buddha at the Buddhist sites of Bharhut , Sanchi and Gaya that are dated between c 150 BC and the end of the 1st century AD. The earliest images of the Buddha in human form belong to the Gandhara School . However, some experts are of the view that Mathura school produced the first images of the Buddha. Both the schools flourished under the Kushana dynasty. tu The most beautiful images of the Buddha were carved out in the Gupta School of art . Nalanda in Bihar was the richest source of the well-known smooth images of the Buddha in black salt and an extensive series of Buddhis

Did Muhammad bin Tughluq launch his career as a ruler  of the Tughlaq dynasty  by arranging the murder of his own father, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the founder of the dynasty? Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq , the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, died in 1325 AD from the collapse of a wooden pavilion which his son Jauna , better known as Muhammad bin Tughluq , had got built by the royal architect (Mir ‘Imard) Ahmad, son of Ayaz. The wooden structure was built at Afghanpur to welcome Sultan after his successful military campaign in Bengal. Afghanpur was located some six miles from Tughluqabad (located on Mehrauli Badarapur Road in Delhi), the fortress-city founded by Ghiyas-ud-din.  Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq's Tomb Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was buried in the tomb which he had built for himself at Tughlaqabad. There are two schools of thought about the Sulltan’s death. While one has accused Muhammad bin Tughlaq of patricide, other has attributed the death to divine interv

A United Nations committee added Chhau dance , a traditional dance of eastern India to a list of "intangible heritages" that need preservation. Chhau dance, prevalent in parts of the states of Orissa , West Bengal and Jharkhand , has been included in the list along with two other Indian performing art forms - Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan and Mudiyettu , a ritual theatre of Kerala . The additions were among 51 items added to The Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The list highlights elements needing protection against the increasing urbanization and globalization. The Chhau dance, famed for its crafted masks and mock combat movements, is in need of support due to the backwardness of the area where this dance form is practised. The Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity now comprises 213 elements.

Mattavilasa-prahasana , one of the masterpieces of Sanskrit literature, was written by Mahendravarman I of the Pallava dynasty of south India. Mahendravarman I (571– 630CE), also known as Mahendravikramavarman, was a contemporary of Harshavardhan of Kanauj. The Pallava ruler is credited with the introduction of the cave style of architecture. He is known for assuming the significant title of Vichitrachitta , “curious minded.”  Mattavilasa (the Sport of the Drunkards) is a one-act play, full of rollicking satire. This little farce tells the story of a drunken Shaivite (follower of Shaivism, the cult of the god Shiva) ascetic, who accuses a Buddhist monk of stealing the skull which he uses as a begging bowl. This leads to the scene of acrimonious debate, full of satirical dialogue, among ascetics of different sects and both sexes. In the end it is found that the skull was stolen by a dog.

Of various forms in which Shiva is worshipped, Nataraja is one of the most important. Shiva is the Lord of Dance ( Nataraja ). Popularity of this aspect of Shiva in south India is due to the fact that religious dancing was very much in vogue there. In this aspect, Shiva is depicted as dancing on the high slopes of the Himalayan Mount Kailasha or in the temple of Chidambaram or Tillai, located near the seacoast in Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu and 78 km south of Pondicherry.  The temple of Chidambaram is mystically identified with Kailasha. This Nataraj has been described as the cultural epitome of the Chola empire which was at its zenith of glory for three hundred years from about 850AD to 1150AD.  Shiva is credited with the invention of 108 different forms of dances. Some of these dances are calm and gentle while others are fierce. Of the latter, tandava is the most famous. In tandava, Shiva, flanked by his drunken attendants ( ganas ) dances terribly to the accompaniment o

After the death of 3rd Pala ruler Devapala, the Pala kingdom was on its way to decline. Till the rule of Devapala, Bengal ranked high among the important powers in the history of mediaeval India. He was succeeded by Vigrahapala I, whose short reign was devoid of any important event. After him, his son Narayanapala ascended the throne in 854 A.D. He showed little interest in military conquests because he was a peace loving and religious person. During the rule of Narayanapala, the Pala kingdom fell prey to the invading armies of the Rashtrakutas in 860 A.D. He was thoroughly defeated. The Pala Empire also could not escape the invasion of the Pratiharas who dealt a severe blow to the body-politic of the kingdom. Bhoja I of the Pratihara kingdom and his son  Mahendrapala succeeded in seizing Magadha from Narayanapala. The Paharpur Pillar Inscription attests to the conquests by the Pratihara rulers. Taking advantage of the weakening condition of the Pala kingdom, the rulers of Kamarupa a

The language of the Indus Civilization , also known as Harappan Civilization in popular parlance, is still unknown. This will remain so until the Indus Civilization script is deciphered. Broadly there are two schools of thoughts as to the nature of the language of the Harappan civilization. According to one, the language belongs to the Indo-European or even Indo-Aryan family. The other school is of the opinion that the language belonged to the Dravidian family.  Notwithstanding of the close scrutiny of some more than 2500 Harappan inscriptions, the task of decipherment remains arduous. Added to this the shortness of the inscriptions nearly all on seals or amulets tablets, renders it difficult to interpret.  It’s is due to these challenges the associated problems have attracted a whole lot of authorities, scholars and experts to attempt their solution. What’s your take on that?

As a result of Alexander’s invasion of India, a number of Greek travelers came to India. They were first to communicate to the outside world what they saw of India. Famous among them are Onesicritus of Astypalaea, Aristobulus of Cassandreia and Nearchus . Onesicritus and Nearchus ware officers in Alexander’s army during his invasion of India. Aristobulus was the Greek historian who accompanied Alexander on his campaigns. Subsequent to these writers came the ambassadors from the Hellenistic kingdoms to the Mauryan court. Their accounts of India were based on a wider and closer observance of the country. Among them the most famous was Megasthenes , who was sent as ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus Nikator , Alexander’s general and the Greek ruler of Persia and Babylon. Other Greek ambassadors or travelers who visited India were Deimachus , Patrocles , Dionysius and Timosthees . Deimachus came to Patliputra as ambassador to the court of Bindusara , son and succ

A man of pious disposition, Nasiruddin Mahmud (rule 1246-66) was a grandson of Iltutmish . According to some experts, he was the youngest son of Iltutmish. He succeeded Alauddin Masud Shah to the throne of Slave Dynasty at the age of sixteen.  Nasiruddin Mahmud was ill-qualified to rule. A puppet in the hands of his courtiers, he was married to the daughter of Ghiyasuddin Balban , one of the leading Turkish nobles. In reciprocation to this Balban was appointed to the post of regent (naib-i-mamlakat) and was conferred with the title of Ulugh Khan ( premier Khan) by the Sultan. Except for a brief period (1253-55) when some nobles opposed to Balban instigated Nasiruddin to exile him, Balban was the de facto ruler of the Delhi Sultanate during the Sultan’s reign. Nasiruddin Mahmud died in 1266. Since he had no male heirs, he designated Balban to be the Sultan.  The fourteenth century historian Isami as well as African traveller Ibn Batuta clearly mention that Nasiruddin was murdered by Ba

Shamsuddin Iltutmish, born in a tribal community of Ilbari in Turkestan, was the real founder of the Slave Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, though he was technically the third ruler of the dynasty. At the time of Qutab-ud-din ’s death in 1210 AD, he was the governor of Badaun . After the death of Qutub-Ud-Din Aibak (founder of Slave Dynasty), the Chihalgani (Group of Forty) put Aram Shah as the next ruler. The relation of Aram to Qutub-Ud-Din is in the realm of debate. Aram Shah turned out to be an inept ruler. Iltutmish or (Altmash) was invited by the nobles of delhi to replace Aram who was defeated in the plain of Jud near Delhi. An intelligent and wise person Iltutmish made Delhi the capital of Delhi Sultanate. The first ten years of Iltutmish’s reign was devoted to consolidating his position which was challenged by his rivals-particularly Tajuddin Yalduz (successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni) and Nasiruddin Qubacha (the Governor of Uch and Multan). Iltutmish defeated both of

Subandhu is one of the greatest writers of Sanskrit prose literature. There is a divergence of opinions among the experts about the exact dating of this great prose writer who is known for his ornate style. However, taking into account the different sources we can come to the conclusion that he probably flourished in the late 6th and early 7th century AD. Subandhu is known by his only work, named after its heroine Vasavadatta . Vasavadatta tells of the vicissitudes of her love for the prince Kandarpaketu . The story of Vasavadatta, however, ends on a happy note.This masterpiece of Sanskrit prose literature is perhaps the first work in the language that has referred to Chess or similar game. Subanndhu is the master of the language.

                                                                 Tripartite Struggle Since the accession of Harshavadhana or Harsha in 606 AD, Kanyakubja (the modern Kanauj in the state of Uttar Pradesh) was to be one of the largest and most prosperous cities of North India till the coming of Muslims. Not much is known about the kingdom of Kanauj after Harsha’s death in 647 AD resulting in a great confusion due to the absence of his heirs.  Kanyakubja came for a short period under the hands of an usurper,  Arunasva who attacked Wang Hstian-tse who had come to the court of Harsha as ambassador of the Chinese emperor Tai-tsung . However, Wang Hstian-tse, with the help of an army from Tibet, Nepal and Assam, succeeded in capturing Arunasva who was taken back to China to spend his days in attendance on the Tang Emperor.  About AD 730 we find a famous king named Yasovarman establishing a kingdom at Kanauj. His invasion of Gauda (Bengal) formed the subject of the Prakrit poem Gaudvad

Shankaracharya is one of the giants of Hindu philosophy, a thinker who had--and who still has--a profound influence on Indian thought. image source: sringeri.net Shankaracharya, or Adi Shankaracharya , was born at Kaladi , presently a village in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. One of the greatest Hindu philosophers and teachers of the post Gupta period, he travelled the length and breadth of India disputing with the Buddhists. Shankaracharya is said to have lived from 788 – 820. During his short life span, he did much to popularize devotion of Shiva among the people of India. He composed extensive commentaries on the Brahma Sutras of Badarayans and the chief Upanishads, Bhagwat Gita and founded an order of Hindu monks to carry on his work. For Shankara all the Vedic literature was sacrosanct and unquestionably true. He succeeded in harmonizing the paradoxes in the Vedic literature. Shankara maintained that the only reality was Brahman , the impersonal world soul of the

In ancient times Tibet was not an isolated region as it is today. It lay in the much frequented route from China and Nepal . In the seventh century AD, Buddhism was introduced to Tibet by Srong-tsan Gampo , one of the most illustrious kings of Tibet. Gampo was married to Princesses Wen Cheng from China and another Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal. It was under the influence of his two wives that he was attracted to Buddhism. In China and Nepal Buddhism had already made its mark. Gampo is credited with introducing in Tibet Indian alphabets. This was the beginning of a new culture and civilisation in that land. Many Buddhist from Tibet, as in the case of China, came to India. Buddhist monks from Tibet came to study at the universities of Nalanda,  Vikramshila and  Odantapuri . As a reciprocation, many Indian Buddhist visited Tibet. In the eighth century AD from Nalanda (a famous centre of learning in ancient Bihar) Buddhist monk Padmasambhava went to Tibet and succeeded in converti

Ram Raja Mandir , a palace-turned-temple, is located at Orchha , a town in Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh. This is the only temple in the world where Lord Ram is worshipped as a king. So the name Ram Raja (king) Temple. Orcha was the seat of power of the princely state of the same name. An interesting legend is attached to the worshipping of Ram as King. The legend has it that in 1600 AD queen of King Madhukar Shah , the third Bundela ruler of Orchha and contemporary of Mughal Emperor Akbar, brought idols of Lord Rama and Lord Ganesha from Ayodhya to the capital. The idol of Ram was supposed to be installed in the Chaturbhuj Temple . The idol was kept at the palace as the Chaturbhuj Temple was yet to be completed. Thereupon after the completion of the Chaturbhuj Temple, the idol that was to be installed in the new temple did not move. This was construed as a divine miracle and the palace was turned into a temple. This is the reason that the idol of Ram faces the palace not th

After a rule of 24 years, Chandragupta Maurya, the first Mauryan Emperor, was succeeded by his son Bindusara. According to Jain tradition, Bindusara's mother was Durdhara . The Greek historian Athenaeus calls him Amitrochates (Sanskrit Amitraghata “ Slayer of Foes ” or Amitrakhada “Devourer of Foes”). It is not known how he got the title of Amitrochates.  Bindusara was the father of Asoka, the greatest ruler of India. The Jain scholar Hemachandra , the court poet of the Chalukyas of Anhilwara, and the Tibetan historian Taranatha mention that Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, was also prime minster of Bindusara.  Bindusara maintained friendly relations with the Hellenic world that had been established in the later days of his father. According to Athenaeus, Bindusara requested the Syrian king Antiochus I “to present him sweet wine, dried figs and a philosopher”. Thereupon, the Seleucid king of Syria sent him the figs and wine and replied , “The Greek law forbids a philosophe

The Revolt of 1857, also known as First War of Indian Independence , shook the very foundation of the British Empire in India. Some of the famous quotes related to the Revolt:  “The crisis came at first as a mere military mutiny, it speedily changed its character and became a national insurrection.” – G. B. Malleson   “It is mutiny or is it a national revolt?” – Benjamin Disraeli , British Conservative leader and Prime Minister.  "What began as a fight for religion ended as a war for independence for there is not the slightest doubt that rebels wanted to get rid of the alien government and restore the old order of which the king of Delhi was the rightful representative.” – S.N.Sen   “On the whole, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that so-called First National War of Independence is neither First, nor National, nor a war of independence.” - R.C. Majumadar .  “It is in fact an anachronism to describe the mutiny as the first essay towards modern independence. It was rather,

Of all the secular literary sources on the history of the Mauryas, the single most important source is Arthasashtra , a treatise on polity, ascribed to Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chankya . Kautilya was the minister of Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya who overthrew the last ruler of the oppressive Nanda Dynasty of Magadh.  Arthashastra was discovered in 1905  by  R. Sama Shashtri,  the  Sanskrit scholar and librarian at Oriental Research Institute (ORI) in Mysore.  Oriental Research Institute (ORI) in Mysore was founded by Mysore’s Wodeyar rulers in 1891.  Arthashastra  is a comprehensive source of information on statecraft and public administration. Divided into fifteen adhikaranas (sections) and 180 prukaranas (chapters), this text on polity is written in both prose and verse in Sanskrit. There is considerable debate on the exact dating of Arthasashtra. Since there is no mention of Chandragupta or Mauryan rulers of Patliputra in the work, some authorities inclu

The Buddha has two kinds of disciples – lay worshippers ( upasakas ) and monks ( bhikkus or shramanas ). The latter were organized into the Sangha or congregation. The membership of the Sangha was open to all, male or female above twenty years of age and who were free from leprosy, consumption and other infections diseases. However, slaves, soldiers and debtors were not allowed to enter the Sangha without the permission of their superior. The admission of Prajapati Gautami , the widowed stepmother of the Buddha, to the Sangha, at the innstance of Ananda , one of chief disciples and consatant companion of the Buddha, marked the beginninng of an order of Buddhist nun. The Buddha had reservations on women's entry innto Sangha and even predicted that allowing women to become nun will make the survival of his teachings difficult. Anyone from the age of eight might become a member of Sangha. However in order to become full member of the Order, one has to be at least 20 years old.

Soon after ascending the Mughal throne, Jahangir , the fourth Mughal Emperor, allowed a chain with bells to be hung outside his palace to enable petitioners to bring their grievances to the notice of the emperor himself. He promulgated twelve edicts or ordinances for the general welfare and better government of the empire. Although these ordinances confirmed Jahangir’s desire to continue his father Akbar’s liberal policies, in practice they remained ineffective. At the beginning of his reign in 1606, Jahangir has to face the rebellion of his son Khusrau in Lahore. Khusrau has the blessings of some of the powerful nobles of the empire. Khusrau’s rebellion was personally suppressed by Jahangir. Khusrau was captured, blinded, confined and subsequently killed by Khurram (name of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal Emperor, before his ascension to the Mughal Throne) in 1622. The fifth Sikh Guru Arjan , who had given shelter to Khusrau at Taran Taran, was fined. When he refused to pay the fine,

Ranakpur Jain Temples When Jainism, the “religion of the Jinas (Conquerors)” came into being in the 6th century BC, the Hindu religious texts were all in Sanskrit while those of Buddhism were in Pali which is still the religious language of the Buddhists in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and South-east Asia.. The Jainas however, opted for Prakrit , though at different places texts were written in local languages as well. A large number of Ashokan edicts are in Prakrit. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, himself preached in ardha Magadhi ( Half Magdhi ). Secondly, the Jain philosophy has certainly enriched India’s thought. The five vows ahimsa , satya , asateya , aprigraha and brahmacharya are relevant even today. In the early centuries of the Christian Era, the Jains (like their Buddhist counterparts) constructed stupas adorned with railings, gateways with carved figures and pillars. The image of a Tirthankara ( ford maker , one of the 24 teachers of Jainism) from Lohanipur ( Patna ) dat

In 1303 AD, Ala-ud-din Khilji attacked Chittor in Rajasthan. Chittor, the capital of Mewar , was controlled by Guhila Rajputs. The geographical location of Chittor kept it immune to external invasion. Being an imperialist Ala-ud-din thought of sending an expedition to Chittor, ruled by Rana Ratan Singh at that time. However according to several Rajput sources and Malik Muhammad Jayasi ’s Padmavat, the principal reason of Ala-ud-din’s invasion of Chittor was to acquire Rata Singh’s queen Padmini who was of exquisite beauty. The story of Padmini does not seem plausible because it is not explicitly mentioned in any contemporary sources. Even the celebrated poet and writer Amir Khusrau , who accompanied Ala-ud-din during this expedition, does not mention anything about the episode. Durig the siege of Chittor the Rajputs showed exemplary valour. Their two brave leaders, named Gora and Badal , showed utmost bravery. But the army of Chittor was no match for the organized strength of Delh

Ala-ud-din was the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate (the combined period of five dynasties from 1206 to 1526). He succeeded to the throne in 1296 by killing his uncle and father-in-law Jalal-ud-din Firuz, who founded the Khilji Dynasty in 1290 by murdering Kaiquabad, the last ruler of the Ilabari Dynasty, known more popularly as the Slave Dynasty.  Ala-ud-din was an imperialist. With his accession begins, as Sir Wolseley Haig says, “the imperial period of the Sultanate”. During the time of Ala-ud-din, Ranthambhore was ruled by the chivalrous Rajput chief Hamir Deva. An expedition sent by the Sultan in 1299 met with only limited success. The Rajputs could not be subdued completely. So Ala-ud-din himself marched to Ranthambhore and captured it in 1301. Hamir Deva was put to death. Ranmal, the minster who betrayed his master Hamir, was also killed by Ala-ud-din’s order.  However, according to Hammir Mahakakavya, written by the Jaina poet Nayachandra Suri, Hamir De

Today is the 135th birth anniversary of Vallabhbhai Patel was a great freedom fighter whose contribution to Indian independence is exemplary. Popularly known as Iron Man , he marked his entry into politics by participating in the Kheda Satyagraha launched in 1918 to secure exemption for the cultivators from payment of land tax for the crops that had failed. In 1922 he stared another peasant movement in Bardoli taluka of Gujarat, popularly known as the Bardoli Satyagraha . In recognition of his great success in organizing the Bardoli movement, Mahatma Gandhi called him Sardar .  Vallabhbhai Patel actively participated in all the movements launched under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. After Independence in 1947, he became India’s deputy Prime Minister. His portfolios included Home, the Indian States and Information and Broadcasting. The crowing achievement of his political career was the integration of some 562 Princely States and domains in the India Union.

Ashoka, the great Mauryan Emperor, became a Buddhist eight years after his coronation, that is a year after his conquest of Kalinga . According to Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamasa (Great Chronicle), Ashoka was converted to Buddhism by Nigrodha , a boy monk who was just seven years old, and afterwards he came into contact with Moggaliputa Tissa who presided over the third Buddhist Council called by Ashoka in his capital Patliputra (modern Patna, the capital of Bihar).  After the third Buddhist Council Ashoka sent Buddhist mission to several parts of India and to Sri Lanka where he sent Mahendra his son, or in some sources his brother, and daughter Sanghamitra for the spread of Buddhism. The conversion of Sri Lanka into Buddhism is unanimously ascribed to Mahendra.  When Ashoka embraced conversion to Buddhism the other members of his family also followed suit. According to the Buddhist sources, Ashoka’s brother Tissa, his son, daughter and queen Karuvaki also became converts to Bu

We have to rely on the traditional accounts to know the early life of Ashoka, the greatest of the Indian kings. According to Buddhist accounts his mother was Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi . As a prince he served as a Viceroy of Ujjaini and Taxila. During his Viceroyalty he fell in love with the daughter of a merchant of Bidisha, referred to as Devi or Vedisa Mahadevi , whom he married.  Ashoka’s two other well-known queens were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra . The second queen, Karuvaki is mentioned in the Queen’s Edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad , in which her religious and charitable donations are referred to. She is described as the mother of Prince Tivara , the only son of Ashoka to be mentioned by name in edicts and inscriptions erected by the Great Mauryan Emperor throughout the kingdom.  According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle Mahavamsa , Ashoka usurped the throne by killing 99 of his brothers. Only the youngest brother named Tishya was spared .

We have to rely on the traditional accounts to know the early life of Ashoka, the greatest of the Indian kings. According to Buddhist accounts his mother was Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi . As a prince he served as a Viceroy of Ujjaini and Taxila. During his Viceroyalty he fell in love with the daughter of a merchant of Bidisha, referred to as Devi or Vedisa Mahadevi , whom he married. Ashoka’s two other well-known queens were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra . The second queen, Karuvaki is mentioned in the Queen’s Edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad , in which her religious and charitable donations are referred to. She is described as the mother of Prince Tivara , the only son of Ashoa to be mentioned by name in inscriptions.

Cheras were one of the three famous ruling kingdoms of the Snagam Age. The rulers of these kingdoms ruled over parts of Kerala and Tamilham. Cholas and Pandyas were the other two ruling dynasties. The Tamil anthology  Padirruppattu is exclusively devoted to the Chera monarchs.   The first famous king of the Chera dynasty was Udiyanjeral (c. AD 130). He was given the titles of Vanavaramban and Perunjoram Udiyan by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram literature. A generous ruler, he is said to have maintained a large kitchen from where he freely distributed food to the people. He was succeeded to the throne by his son Imayavaramaban Nedunjeral Adan (c. AD 155) who defeated the ruler of the  Kadambas and destroyed his guardian tree. In another work, he is also credited to have captured several Yavanas, who were released only when the ruler received a heavy ransom in the form of diamonds and may utensils of fine workmanship. These Yavanas are identified with the Greek sailors. It is not

The last days of the Mughal Emperor Akbar proved to be unhappy due to rebellion of his son Salim , who succeed him under the title of Jahangir . The death of his friend and poet Faizi in 1595 saddened Akbar. Salim was eager to ascend the throne and even entered into intrigues with Portuguese to achieve his end. He even hurt Akbar by commissioning the murder the Abul Fazal (brother of Faizi), author of Akbarnama, by Vir singh Bundela.  The Mughal court became divided into two factions, one favouring the succession of Salim while the other, led by Raja Man Singh , plotted to secure succession of Salim’s son Khusrav. In fact, Khusrav was also Akbar’s choice. However, before his death Akbar pardoned Salim and nominated him as his successor. Akbar died of diarrhoea on 17th October in 1605.

During the 10th and 11th century AD the territory of Jejakabhukti or modern Bundelkhand was ruled by the Rajput rulers of the Chandella dynasty under whom a great school of architecture flourished. The finest specimen of the architecture is a group of temples at Khajuraho in the state of Madhya Pradesh . The Khajuraho temples have been declared World Heritage site by UNESCO. Three most important cities in the Chandella dominions were Khajuraho (Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh), Kalinjar (Banda district in Uttar Pradesh) and Mahotsavanagar (Mahoba district in Uttar Pradesh). About these cities eminent historian Vincent Smith remarks, “The first-named town with is magnificent temples may be regarded as the religious, the second with its strong fortress as the military and the third with its palace as the civil capital.”                                                              Khajuraho Temple / Image source The Chandellas are believed to have been a clan of aboriginal

Buddha Statue-Bodhgaya The Buddha ( the enlightened or Awakened), also known as Sakyamuni or Thathagata , was born in 563 B. C. on the Vaihsakha Purnima day in the royal grove at Lumbini, near Kapilavastu , capital of the Sakyan republic, where his father Suddhodana was at the time ruling. At birth the Buddha stood upright, took seven strides, and spoke: “ This is my last birth-henceforth there is no more birth for me .” His mother, Mahamaya , died seven days after the birth. So the child, named Siddhartha , was brought up by his stepmother Gautami. Gautama as a child led a sheltered life and was given every kind of luxury. He was married at the age of 16 to Yasodhara , his cousin and the beautiful daughter of a neighboring chieftain whom he won at a contest where he defeated all the contenders including his envious cousin Devadatta . Gautama enjoyed family life for thirteen years and had a son Rahula . Since one of the soothsayers had prophesied that Siddhartha is des

Razia (AD 1236-40) was the first and last Muslim woman ruler of Delhi. After the death of her father Sultan Iltutmish (the second ruler of the Slave dynasty of Delhi Sultanate) in 1236, her half brother Rukn-ud-din Firuz ascended the throne with the help of the nobles. This was against the wishes of Iltutmish or Altamash who was aware that his sons were not fit to be the ruler.  During the rule of  Rukn-ud-din Firuz the empire plunged into disorder. Matters were made worse by her mother Shah Turkan who unveiled a reign of terror on her adversaries. Initially a concubine in the harem of Iltutmish, Shah Turkan later on went on to become queen of the Sultan. As chaos and confusion loomed large, Rukn-ud-din Firuz and his mother Shah Turkan were put to death on November 9, 1936. He ruled for only seven months. Razia was now the natural choice of the nobles of Delhi. Razia’s rule lasted three years ad half. She gave good account of herself as a shrewd diplomat and a strategist. At the beginn

Mariam uz-Zamani was the wife of Akbar and mother of the fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Akbar, the greatest of the Mughals, understood it very well that in order to rule such a large country like India, it was essential to have the support the majority of the population. Consequently he entered into matrimonial alliance with Rajputs who were the formidable adversaries of the Mughals. Tomb of Mariyam Before her marriage to Akbar, Mariam uz-Zamani, who was Akbar’s first Rajput wife, was known as Rajkumari Hira Kunwari. She was the eldest daughter of Kachwaha Rajput, Raja Bharmal of Amber. The Tomb of Mariam, built in red sand stone in 1611, is located at Sikandra, near Agra. It is one km away from Akbar’s tomb.

In the history of Kashmir, the Utpala dynasty holds a special place. The founder of the Utpala dynasty was Avantivarman who ruled from AD 855 to 883. He was more interested in internal administration than military conquests. New towns and irrigation works were constructed. One of these towns was Suyyapura (modern Sopar ), called after his minister and engineer Suyya who gave a further impetus to the agriculture of Kashmir by draining marshes and protecting the fields against the deluge of avalanches. It is said of Suyya that he “made the streams of Indus and Jhelum flow according to his will, like a snake charmer his snakes.” Avantivarman founded a new city Avantipur (Bantipur). A patron of learning , Avantivarman, in his court, has two poets, Ratnakara and Anandavardhan . In his time, according to the Kashmiri poet Kalhana, author of Rajatarangini (“rivers of kings”), rice was sold for 36 dinaras per khari, as against 2000 dinaras earlier, showing the revival of the country’s p

Since ancient times rivers have been held scared by the Hindus. Ganga is the most sacred river of India. Sacred because according to Hindu mythology, Ganga sprang from the foot of Vishnu, flowed over the sky in the form of the milky way ( Mandakini ) and then fell to earth from the matted locks of Shiva.  Himalayas is the source of Ganga. It is at Hardwar in the sate of Uttarakhand that this holy river debouches on the plain, known as the Gangetic plain. Ganga joins the Bay of Bengal at Ganga Sagar in West Bengal where it forms a large delta.  Ganga is mentioned only once in a late hymn of Rigveda, the earliest of the Vedas. It seems that during the Rigvedic period, the Aryans had not expanded beyond Yamuna.  The relief of " The Descent of the Ganges ", also known as Arjuna's Penance , in the rock-cut temples of Mamallapuram (Tami Nadu) , now known as Mahabalipuram,  is the most striking of the sculptures for which the Pallavas are known all over the world.  Covering

Pritilata Waddedar (1911-32) was a woman revolutionary from Bengal. An active member of the Jugantar and the Chittagong Republican Army , formed by Surya Sen , also known as “ Masterda ”. She led a group of revolutionaries and attacked a European club at Pahartali on September 24, 1932 in which a number of European were killed or wounded. After successfully raiding the club, she swallowed poison and committed suicide with a written statement in her pocket, which was a clarion call to the womanhood of India to rise up in arms against the foreign oppressions and to stand by the side of their brothers fighting for freedom. Pritilata Waddedar Ashutosh Gowariker's period film "Khele Hum Jee Jaan Se" is based on the Chittagong Uprising. The film is based on based on the book Do And Die by Manini Chatterjee, a veteran journalist. Role of Preetilata Waddedar is played by Vishakha Singh. Abhishek Bachchan plays the role of Surya Sen, that of other woman revolutionary