Indian History

The territory that constitutes present day Uttar Pradesh was made home by the Aryans in 2000 BC. The ancient kingdom of Kosala of which Rama of Ramayana was king was located in the state of Uttar Pradesh . According to tradition, Krishna , the preacher of Bhagwat Gita, was born in the city of Mathura . Uttar Pradesh remained part of the most of the great kingdoms of India including the Mauryan (320-200 BC), Kushan (100-250 AD) and Gupta (350-600 AD) empires. After the downfall of the Guptas, Harshavardhana rose into prominence with Kannauj at his capital. After Harshavardhana’s death, his empire fell into pieces. There arose many kingdoms which were ruled mostly by Rajputs. Uttar Pradesh came under the control of Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. Agra and Fatehpur Sikri served as the capital cities of Akbar, the greatest Mughal Emperor of India. After the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the state was ruled by different rulers. Chief among them were the Nawabs of Ou

Known as Kirat Desh in times of antiquity, Tripura has been referred to in the great epic of Mahabharata as well as ancient Hindu scriptures including the Puranas. That the region was under the control of the 3rd century BC Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is proved by the pillar inscriptions that were erected by the great Maurya in many parts of his expansive kingdom. Tripura derives its name from the great king of the same name, a contemporary of Yudhishtara of Mahabharata fame, tracing his descent to King Druya and Bhabru. According to other school of thought the region derives its name from the temple of Tripuri Sundari, situated at Radhakrishnapur in the state. A princely state of great antiquity, Tripura was under the control of Tripuri Kings (Habugra) who ruled the territory for three millennia under the title of Manikya. Udaipur in South Tripura district was seat of government of the Manikyas whose King Krishna Manikya, in the 18th century, transferred the capital form Udaipur to Old Aga

The symbol of India, the Taj Mahal at Agra is known the world over. In fact, this is the most resplendent of the Indian sites, one certainly not to miss even in the most perfunctory of tours. Situated 125 miles (200km) south of Delhi, Agra is an essential stop in any tour of India. Built under the reign of the fifth Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century, this mausoleum of his wife, Arjumand Banu Begum (better known as Mumtaz Mahal), is the very pinnacle of Mughal architecture. It is called the Taj Mahal after the title of the empress. It has been poetically described as “a tender elegy in marble.” The belief that the Taj owes its design to a Venetian, Gernimo Verrones , is misleading. The Taj is the crowing glory and culmination of the Mughal architecture. It was commenced in 1631 and completed some time around 1653. The monument is rightly regarded as one of the wonders of the world for its beauty and magnificence. The grandest achievement of the Mughal architecture, the Taj

The excavations at Adichanallur , 24 km from Tirunelveli in the state of Tamil Nadu, points to settlements of people in the pre-historic times. The ancient period in Tamil Nadu is marked by the emergence of the four Tamil kingdoms of the Chera , Chola , Pandya and Pallavas . Apart from these dynasties, an obscure power named Kalabhras succeeded in displacing the three Tamil kingdoms between the fourth and the seventh centuries CE. The period is referred to as the Dark Age in the history of Tamil Nadu. The Kalabhras were later expelled by the Pallavas and the Pandyas . The Pallavas who ruled Tamil Nadu were the contemporaries of the Rashtrakutas. The early history of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery, but Simhavishnu Avanisimha , who ascended the throne in about 575 AD, is considered to e the real founder of the Pallava dynasty. Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I were the great rulers of the Pallavas dynasty. Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas whose

Located on the banks of the Narmada, Bharukachcha, the modern Broach in Gujarat, was the most famous port and commercial centre of Gujarat in ancient India. It was one of the chief ports of ancient India. It has been frequently mentioned in several Buddhist and Sanskrit works. From the early centuries of the Christian era till the close of the thirteenth century, Bharukachcha, remained a prosperous town and a thriving port under the successive dynasties which ruled Gujarat.

Alexander Cunningham was one of the colleagues of James Prinsep. He assisted the later in the decipherment of the Brahmi script. The decipherment of the Brahmi script led to the reading of the Asokan edicts. Thus the world came to know about the great emperor. Alexander Cunningham was an officer of the Royal engineers. He came to India in 1831. Since his arrival in the country, he devoted his time to the study of the ancient remains of Indian history. Alexander Cunningham recorded the existence of a series of mounds after visiting Harappan site. He is credited to have conducted a limited excavation of the Harappan site. He published a few Objects (such as seals) as well as the site-plan. He was appointed Archeological Surveyor in 1862. Indian Indology owes a lot to Sir Alexander Cunningham. He is rightly called father of Indian archeology.

After coming into the control of many dynasties including those of Gupats and Harshavardhana , the territory of Himachal Pradesh was divided into small principalities headed by chieftains. Some of these small kingdoms were ruled by Rajput chieftains. These principalities were invaded by the Muslim armies at regular intervals. At the beginning of the 10th century, Mahmud Ghaznavi launched a military campaign against Kangra and captured it. Timur and Sikander Lodi also made similar raids. Many of the hill kingdoms became vassals of the Mughal empire.  During India’s struggle for freedom, most of the princely states of Himachal Pradesh either remained indifferent or supported the cause of the British. After becoming a Union Territory on 1 November 1956, Himachal Pradesh became the eighteenth state of the Indian Union on 18 December 1970 thanks to the enactment of the State of Himachal Pradesh Act by the Indian Parliament

The area that constitutes the present day state of Maharashtra was the scene of the flourishing of many dynasties. After coming into the control of the Mauryan Empire, Satavahana kingdom held its sway over the territory. Junnar , thirty miles north of Pune, was the capital of the Satavahanas at one point of time. During the Satavahana period, Maharashtra became a great centre of culture and learning. The official language of Satavahana was Maharashtri , which later developed into Marathi. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satkarni , who took pride in calling himself the destroyer of the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks) and Pahlavas (Parthians). He is credited to have started the Shalivahana era, a new calendar, still used by the Maharashtrians. Sri Yajna Satkarni was the last great king of the Satavahana kingdom. According to some Puranas, 19 kings of this dynasty ruled for 300 years, while according to others, 30 kings ruled for 465 years. The d

Various dynasties held their sway over the territory that constitutes the present day state of Madhya Pradesh. Many places in the state find mention in the ancient scriptures such as Ramayana and Mahabharata. Khajuraho The city of Ujjain, earlier known as Avanti, made its mark as a major center of power and learning in the sixth century BC. The whole area came under the control of the Maurya Empire (321 to 185 BCE). After the downfall of the Mauryan Empire, the territory was ruled by various dynasties including the Satavahana and the Sakas. The Gupta dynasty which ruled over the state is considered to be golden period of the Indian history. The medieval period witnessed the emergence of several dynasties including the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandelas of Bundelkhand. The world heritage site of Khajuraho temples were built by the Chandelas of Bundelkhand. The territory came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. The present day Madhya Pradesh

One of the few Portuguese colonies, Dadra and Nagar Haveli is currently a Union Territory in western India. The territory came under the rule of the Portuguese dominion in India in 1779 and remained under their control till 1954. India’s independence in 1947 instilled a sense of patriotism and confidence in the residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli who were now filled with the desire of throwing of the yoke of foreign rule. As a result, a movement was started under the aegis of the United Front of Goans (UFG) and the National Movement Liberation Organisation (NMLO) resulting in the independence of Dadra and Nagar Haveli from the Portuguese rule. The movement was ably supported by the Azad Gomantak Dal and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh . Dadra and Nagar Haveli, thus, became a free nation. The residents of the territory sought help from the Government of India. From 1954 to 1961 Dadra and Nagar Haveli was administered by a body called the Varishta Panchayat of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Lord Mountbatten, a member of the British Royal family, assumed office as Viceroy on March 24, 1947 and was the last Viceroy of India. His administration in India witnessed the creation of the independent states of India and Pakistan, Mountbatten , after meeting various warring groups, came to the conclusion that only solution to the constitutional impasse was partition of the country and he won over the congress leaders to that viewpoint. On June 3, 1947 ( June 3rd Plan ) the plan to partition India was announced. On July 4, 1947, the Indian independence act was introduced in the House of Commons by British Prime Minister Clement Attlee . Two boundary commissions were set up- one for the partition of Bengal and other for the partition of Punjab. Sir Cyril Radcliffe was appointed the chairman of both commissions. On August 7 Jinnah left India for Karachi and the constituent assembly of Pakistan elected him as its president. The constituent assembly of the Indian union met in Delhi on

A famous 11th-century Kashmiri poet, Bilhana ‘s claim to fame is his love poem, Caurapancasika (Fifty Stanzas of the Thief’). In a class of its own, Caurapancasika describes the secret love of a bold housebreaker and a princess and is full of intense emotion. Born in Kashmir, Bilhana left his native place to seek employment in the court of Later Chalukyas. Bilhana is known for composing a eulogy of the great Western Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya VI titled Vikramankadevacharita (“Deeds of Vikramaditya). It is stated in Vikramankadevacharita that  Vikramaditya VI was asked by Shiva to replace his elder brother who was the reigning Chalukya monarch.

The efforts of rulers of the Delhi Sultanate to assert their rule over the conquered territories became unsuccessful. As a result several provincial dynasties came into being and wielded substantial sovereign power and contributed to the growth of art, architecture and literature.  One such dynasty was the Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur , north of Varanasi in the present Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur was founded by Malik Sarwar , a eunuch belonging to Sultan Firuz Tughluq. Malik Sarwar’s astonishingly fast rise to power can be attributed to the chaos that ruled supreme after the death of Firuz in 1388. He was made wazir of the Delhi sultanate by Firuz’s younger son, Muhammad Shah (1390-93) who conferred on him the title of Sultanush-Sharq (Ruler of the Eastern Kingdom).  Malik Sarwar’s rise continued and in 1394 was appointed governor of Jaunpur, where he successfully repulsed the uprisings by the Hindu chiefs of Bihar and Avadh. The chiefs of Darbhanga, Muzaf

One of the pioneers of social reforms in British India, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-1895) was born at Tembhu in Satara district of Maharashtra. He was one of the founders of the D eccan Education Society in 1884, with Lokmanya Tilak , Vishnushastri Chipalunkar and Madhavrao Namjoshi being the other members. Agarkar was also one of the founder members of the Fergusson College in Pune in 1885. In 1891 he became the Principal of the Fergusson College in 1892 and held that office till his unexpected death in 1895. Agarkar was the first editor of Marathi weekly the Kesari and English weekly the Mahratta started by Lokmanya Tilak. Following his differences with Tilak, he started his own weekly the Sudharak In 1888. Gopal Krishna Gokhale used to contribute to this weekly. Throughout his life, Agarkar fought to raise the age of marriage for boys and girls.

Samudragupta, was greatest ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He was son and successor of Chadragupta I. He succeeded to the throne in c. 350 AD. He ruled for about 25 years. A skillful military leader and administrator as well as a patron of learning, Samudragupta is called Indian Napolean . His court poet Harishena composed an eloquent eulogy of him which is contained in the Allahabad pillar inscription (API). Samudragupta is credited to have uprooted Nagasena, Achyuta and Ganapatinaga, (identified with the rulers of Padmavati, Ahichchhatra and Mathura respectively). He is said to have captured the prince of the Kota family (Bulandshahr region) and besieged the city of ‘Pushpa’(probably Kanyakubja). Apart from these conquests, Samudragupta brought under his control a large number of kings and vassals. According to eminent historian K. P. Jaiswal, Samudragupta forced Rudrasena I of the Vakatava dynasty to cede his North Indian possession to the Gupta Empire. To commemorate this vict

In medieval India, Sufism was an important aspect of Islam. Various authorities have offered different explanations regarding the origin of the word “Sufi”. According to one school of thought, the term Sufi has been derived from ‘ suf ’ or garments of coarse wool that were worn by the Sufi saints as a badge of poverty. Abu Nasral Sarraj , the author of an Arabic treatise on Sufism, traces the origin of term by the word suf (wool). Generally, authorizes are of the opinion that virtuous people were called safa. Hence the nomenclature Sufi. According to another school of though, the term has been derived from the Greek word Sophia meaning wisdom or knowledge. Jahiz of Basra was the first writer to use the word Sufi in 869 A.D. Jami mentions that sufi was first applied to Abu Hashim of Kufa in the 8th century while Aul-Kusheri opines that this term was introduced in A.D.811.

“ A coward is incapable of exhibiting love; it is the prerogative of the brave .” “ A weak man is just by accident. A strong but non-violent man is unjust by accident .” “ An eye for an eye only ends up making the whole world blind .” “ Anger is the enemy of non-violence and pride is a monster that swallows it up .” “ But for my faith in God, I should have been a raving maniac .” “ I am prepared to die, but there is no cause for which I am prepared to kill .” “ I believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the world .” “ I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and Non-violence are as old as the hills. All I have done is to try experiments in both on as vast a scale as I could. ” “ I reject any religious doctrine that does not appeal to reason and is in conflict with morality .”

Tukaram was born in the family of a farmer at Dehu , a town near the city of Pune . He inheritred some landed property and cattle, but lost them all in a great famine. He also lost his parents, one of his two wives, and a son in the famine. Left with nothing to fend for, he lost interest in life. Added to this, constant nagging of his other wife, who was a shrew, troubled Tukaram very much. Fed up with the turn of events, Tukaram took to the study of the works of Jnaneswar, Ekanatha and Namdeva he retreated to the hills of Bhamhanatha and Bhandara and practised mediation. Tukaram is credited to have written several abhangas , which are highly popular in Maharshtra. These abhangas embody his teachings. Some of these abhangas were translated into Bengali by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore . A contemporary of great Maratha ruler Shivaji , Tukaram declined to accept the offer of rich presents made by him.

Born to a respectable family in Calcutta on 19 November 1838 , Keshab Chandra Sen was one of the most famous social reformers of India and took the leadership of the Brahmo Samaj during the absence of Debendranath Tagore . A strong votary of widow remarriage, Keshab Chandra Sen started  Bamabodhini Patrika , a journal for women. Keshab Chandra Sen launched several radical reforms, such as giving up of caste names, advocating inter caste marriage and launched movement against the social vices prevailing at that time like child marriage. These radical reforms resulted in the first schism in the Brahmo Samaj. The original Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy , came to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj and the other, the Brahmo Samaj of India was established by Keshab Chandra Sen in 1867. In 1870  Keshab Chandra  Sen founded the India Reform Association  which succeeded in persuading the British Government to enact the Native Marriage Act of 1972 (popularly known as Civil Marriage A

There are numerous Bodhisattvas in the universe of the Mahayana Buddhism. Chief among them is Avalokiteśvara (the "Lord who looks down"), also called Padmapani (the Lotus Beraer). He is an embodiment of compassion and his helping hand reaches even to Avici, the deepest and most unpleasant of the Buddhist purgatories. Karanda-vyuha is an important Mahayana text that glorifies the compassionate qualities of Avalokiteshvara and his different forms and manifestations.

Christianity has quite a good presence in India. Ever since its early years, Christianity has had its roots in India. If we are to rely on a tradition, India come in contact with Christianity very early. In fact tradition credits the Disciple Thomas himself with evangelizing India. The legend has it that Gondophares , one of the Pahalva rulers, was converted by St. Thomas himself. According to Roman Catholics, tomb of St. Thomas was buried in the cathedral at Mailapur or Mylapore in the southern part of Chennai. If we have to put aside the legend, the first definite historical evidence to the Christian activity can be found in the Topografia Christiana (Christian Topography) of Cosmas Indicopleustes, an adventurous Alexendrian monk of the 6th century AD. Cosmas Indicopleustes , literally meaning who sailed to India, left a voluminous account of his travels. Indicopleustes saw churched in Kerala and according to him these churches were in the hands of Persian priests. This amounts to