Indian History

Ishwar Das Nagar was the most remarkable Hindu historiographer during the reign of the sixth and last most notable Mughal monarch Aurangzeb.  He was the author of the Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri, t he only literary work that was composed under the patronage of Aurangzeb who was otherwise opposed to the encouragement of arts and letters.  The Fatawa-i-Alamgiri has been described as "the greatest digest of Muslim law made in India".

It was during the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud (1394-1413), the last of the Tughluq rulers, in the years 1398-99, that Amir Timur, the terrible Mongol military leader of Central Asia, invaded India creating havoc in the forms of massacres and plunders. Also known as Tamerlane, Timur (April 8, 1336–February 18, 1405) was a ferocious conqueror who is known in history for razing cities to the ground and putting entire populations to the sword.  Amir Timur was born in A.D. 1336 at Kesh (now known as Shahrisabz) in Transoxiana. Son of Amir Turghay, chief of the Gurkan branch of the Barlas Turks, Amir Timur ascended the throne of Samarqand in 1369 and overran the countries of Persia, Afghanistan and Mesopotamia. Amir Timur was emboldened to attack India due to the chaotic condition prevailing during the times of the later Tughluq rulers. However as his nobles and soldiers were not in favour of undertaking military campaign to India, he declared that his main object for invading the country was

Malik Maqbul, more famously known as  Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, was the prime minister (Na'ib Wazir) of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, the last great ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty. He was given the title of Khan-i-Jahan by the Tughlaq Sultan. Maqbul, though illiterate but a very able administrator, was originally a Brahmin from Telangana in the service of Kakatiya Kingdom  which was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate during the Tughlaq rule. He was brought to Delhi where he became a convert to Islam. As is the case with neo-converts, he tried his best to show his zeal for new faith.  Impressed by his talent, Muhammad bin Tughlaq gave Maqbul the fief of Multan. As mentioned at the outset Maqbul was elevated to the exalted position of the prime minister by Firoz Tughlaq, successor of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. After the death of Maqbul in 1370, his son, Juna Shah, was made the prime minister by Firoz. He was, however, killed by Muhammad Khan, the third son of Firoz Tughlaq, when Juna Shah tried to wrest

Ibrahim Lodi Tomb, Panipat Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Lodi rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, is a famous personality in the Indian history whose defeat by Babur, the founder of the Mughal empire, in the first Battle of Panipat in 1526 led to the foundation of a new dynasty, named the Mughal empire, in India which lasted till 1857. Ibrahim Lodi, the eldest son of Sikandar Lodi, succeeded to the Delhi throne after his father’s death in 1517.  After becoming the Lodi Sultan, he assumed the title of Ibrahim Shah.   Military campaigns of Ibrahim Lodi The greatest military achievement of Ibrahim was the subjugation of Gwalior which was then being ruled by Vikramajit whose father Man Singh had successfully frustrated designs of previous Lodi ruler Sikandar Lodi. Ibrahim sent an army to the principality of Gwalior on the pretext that Vikramajit had offered shelter to Ibrahim‘s younger brother, Jalal Khan, who also eyed the Delhi throne. Jalal Khan was killed on the order of Ibrahim who also im

Dadu was the most important of the religious teachers who taught the ideals of Kabir with great force. He was born to Brahmin parents in 1544 AD in Ahmedabad in Gujarat.  He, however, spent most part of his life in Rajasthan where he died in 1603 in the village of Narana or Narayana which is presently the chief centre of his followers who are called by the name of Dadu-panthis. A contemporary of Mughal emperor Akbar, Dadu taught the brotherhood of all faiths and founded Brhama-sampradaya or Parabrahma- sampradaya to give effect to his doctrine. It is said that it was at the instance of Dadu that the Mughal emperor ordered the ban of cow-slaughter in his empire. A non-believer in the authority of scriptures, Dadu stressed the importance of self-realization. According to him, this realization can be attained by complete surrender to God and making ourselves free from egotism. Sundaradasa (1597-1689) and Rajjab were the famous disciples of Dadu. Famous Quote of Dadu “Be humble and free f

Rukn-ud-din Firuz was the ruler of the Slave dynasty who was placed on the throne of Delhi Sultanate by the nobles of the court in deference to the wishes of the Slave Sultan Iltutmish who had nominated his daughter Razia as his successor before his death in April, 1236. Iltutmish's eldest son, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, who was also his favourite child and the ablest among the children , died in April, A.D. 1229. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud was governor of Bengal at that time. Since Rukn-ud-din Firuz, Iltutmish’s eldest surviving son, was incompetent and lazy and indulged in sensual pleasures, the Sultan thought it prudent to nominate Razia as heir-apparent . However, the anointment of a woman was not liked by the nobles and courtiers. So his wish was thrown to the dustbin and Rukn-ud-din Firuz became the next Slave Sultan. Rukn-ud-din Firuz’s reign did not last long as the kingdom plunged into utter chaos and disorder due to the undue influence of his mother Shah Turkhan, an inordinate

In 1397 Taj-ud-din Firuz Shah, popularly known as Firuz Shah Bahmani, usurped the throne of the Bhamani kingdom which came into existence in 1347 in the Deccan as a revolt against the rule of the Tughlaq Sultan Muhammad Bin Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate. The most famous ruler of the Bahmani kingdom, Firuz Shah was a grandson Alauddin Hasan Bahmani, the founder of the dynasty. Sayyid Ali Tabataba, the author of Burhan-i-Ma'asir , describes him as ' a good, just, and generous king, who supported himself by copying the Quran’. According to him, Firuz "was an impetuous and a mighty monarch, and expended all his ability and energy in eradicating and destroying tyranny and heresy, and he took much pleasure in the society of the Shekhs, learned men and hermits". An interesting personality in the history of Deccan, Firuz Shah is counted among the most learned rulers of his time. Endowed with a prodigious memory and keen intellect, he was a linguist and could converse freely

Ruknuddin Kaikaus was the independent ruler of Bengal who ruled from 1291 to 1300 AD. He succeeded to the throne after his father Bughra Khan, son of Delhi Sultan Balban, decided to abdicate the Bengal throne in his favour. 

Born in 1311 AD, Khwaja Abd Malik Isami has written a political history called Futuh–us-Sulatin, dedicated to the founder of the Bahmani kingdom, Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah.  Composed in a form of an epic, Futuh –us-Sulatin begins with the rise of the Ghaznavi dynasty and concludes with the reign of Sultan Muhamamd bin Tughlaq. According to Isami, Balban became the ruler of the Slave dynasty by murdering his predecessor and son-in-law Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. Regarding the rationale of shifting his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad) in the Deccan by Muhamamd bin Tughlaq,  this fourteen century historian says that  the decision was taken as Daultabad was centrally located and consequently safe from the Mongol invasion, a recurrent feature during the period.

Burhan-i-Ma'asir, named after Burhan Nizam Shah II of Nizam Shahi dynasty of the Muslim kingdom of Ahmadnagar, is written by Sayyid Ali Tabataba who came to India from Persia in 1580. Tabataba started writing Burhan-i-Ma'asir in 1591-1592 and finished it in 1595-1596. Burhan-i-Ma'asir describes the events pertaining to the Bahmani kingdom and its subsequent break-up into five Muslim dynasties in the South India. 

No less than eighteen rebellions took place during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the second ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. One such rebellion challenging his authority came from Jalal-ud-din Ahsan Shah , governor of Malabar, who cashing in on the Sultan's military preoccupations in Northern India, declared his independence in A.D. 1335 and struck gold and silver coins in his own name. Thus came into being the independent Muslim Sultanate of Madurai.  The Madurai  Sultanate , however, proved short-lived.  The kingdom was annexed to the resurgent Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar in 1378. The victory has been celebrated in the Sanskrit epic poem of great merit Madura Vijayam (Conquest of Madurai) or Kamparaya-Charitam (History of Kampanna), composed by Ganga Devi, queen of Vira Kampanna, who led the Vijayanagar army. Vira Kampanna was the son of Bukka I, co-founder of Vijayanagar empire.  Jalal-ud-din Ahsan Shah was also the father-in-law of the famous Arab trav

One of the first Englishmen to come to the Mughal court during the reign of fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir, Captain William Hawkins was sent as ambassador by the British King James I to the Mughal court. Though favourbaly received by Jahangir, he was unsuccessful in securing the permit to settle at Surat due the opposition of the Portuguese and the merchants of Surat.  He was given a mansab of 400 by  Jahangir.    Hawkins remained at the Mughal court from 1609 to 1611. He has left a valuable account of his experiences in India.

                                        Tomb of Adham Khan/ Wikimedia Commons One of the powerful nobles of the Mughal empire during Akbar’s reign, Adham Khan was the son of Maham Anaga, the foster mother of the Mughal emperor Akabr. He was sent by Akbar to conquer Malwa in 1561 which he accomplished with oppressive measures. According to some school of thought , one of the causes for the invasion of Malwa was Adham Khan’s infatuation for Rupmati , the queen of Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa. Baz Bahadur, who had hitherto neglected the administration of his kingdom, awoke from his slumber and faced the enemies but was defeated in the battle of Sarangpur and fled to Khandesh and Burhanpur. All his treasure and several other wives fell into the hands of Adham Khan whose methods to conquer Malwa and their oppression in the Malwa kingdom have been described by the contemporary historian Badauni, who had accompanied the Mughal army.  When it was found that Rupmati ran the