Bagh Paintings

Painting was a highly developed art in ancient India. The cave paintings of Ajanta testify this. The paintings on the walls of the verandah of a cave at Bag are other instances where you can find painting at its greatest. The Bagh Caves are situated in the Dhar district in Madhya Pradesh .

Among the many masterpieces of Bagh paintings, we must mention the depiction of a procession of elephants. In fact according to some exerts, the painting is more impressive than those at Ajanta.

Bahadur Shah I, Mughal Emperor

Muazzam emerged victorious in the war of succession among the sons of Aurangzeb following his death in 1707. Muazzam, then subahdar of Kabul at the time of his father’s death, crowned himself emperor with the name of Bahadur Shah, generally known as Bahadur Shah I. He ascended the Mughal throne at an advanced age of 67.

Also known as 'Heedless king' (Shah-i-bekhabar) due to his indifference to administration, Bahadur Shah I was the only ruler of the Later Mughals to have exercised the real authority. Though he was not a great administrator, he was affable by temperament. By his conciliatory attitude he managed to retain the support of most of the factions and groups in the Mughal court.

Bahadur Shah I pursued a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs and the Marathas. Sahu, son of Sambhaji, who had been in Mughal captivity since the fall of Raigarh, was released. Jeziah, imposed by Aurangzeb, was withdrawn. He acknowledged the independence of Mewar and Marwar. Bahadur Shah I died in 1712 during the course of his campaign against the powerful Sikh leader Banda Bahadur.

Bahadur Shah I was succeeded to the Mughal throne by his son Jahandar Shah. 

Young Bengal Movement

The Young Bengal Movement was started by a remarkable personality of the 19th century Henry Vivian Derozio (1809-1831) who was  a teacher of English literature and History in the Hindu College in Calcutta. 

A rationalist to the core, Derozio was also editor of the Hesperus and Calcutta Literary Gazette. He was associated with India Gazette as well. A radical thinker Derozio exercised unprecedented influence over his students. He urged them to live and die for truth - to cultivate and practice all the virtues, shunning vice in every shape. He gave the greatest impetus to free discussion on all subjects-social, moral and religious. 

In 1828. Derozio established the Academic Association which used to organise debates and discussions on various topics and subjects. 

Though he lived for only 22 years, Derozio ranks among those rare teachers whose attachment to knowledge, hatred of evil and love of truth made a profound impression upon those who came in contact with him. He pursued what was right and was accused of misguiding the youth. Some influential Hindus had him removed from service and shortly thereafter he died. But the Derozian influence continued and it was known as the Young Bengal Movement. All the leading movements of the period were influenced by his ideas. 

Itmad- ud- Daulah’s tomb: Masterpiece of Mughal Architecture

The method of decorating the walls with floral designs studded with semi-precious stones is called pietra dura. Itmad- ud- Daulah’s tomb at Agra is one of the earliest buildings in which pietra dura was used.

Itmad- ud- Daulah’s tomb was built by Nur Jahan, wife of Jahangir, for her father Mirza Ghiyas Beg, who was given the title of Itmad- ud- Daulah (pillar of the state). Pietra dura is also used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal.

Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles

Ganesha or Ganapati is one of the most popular gods in Hinduism. He is the son of Shiva and Parvati. He has an elephant’s head with one broken tusk and a fat paunch. Ganesha rides on a rat and is the “Lord of Obstacles” (Vighneshwara).
Ganesha is worshipped at the beginning of all undertakings to remove snags and hindrances. He is particularly interested in literary and educational activities, and is the patron of grammarians. Manuscripts, Hindu marriage cards and printed books often begin with the auspicious formula Sri-Ganeshaya namah,” Reverence to Lord Ganesha.”
Benevolent Ganehsa is often depicted in cheerful disposition. He is revered by every Hindu, whether Vaisnavite or Shaivite.

Farrukhsiyar: Later Mughal Emperor

Farrukhsiyar was the Mughal Emperor of India from 1713-19. He was the second son of Azim al-Shan, brother of Jahandar Shah who became the Mughal Emperor after the death of his father Bahadur Shah I who ruled from 1707-12. Azim al-Shan was killed in the war of succession that took place among the sons of Bahadur Shah I. Farrukhsiyar deposed Jahandar Shah and became the Mughal Emperor in 1713.

Farrukhsiyar owed his accession to the Mughal throne to powerful Saiyid Brothers. In return for their services, Saiyid Abdullah Khan and his younger brother Hussain Ali Khan were appointed as Wazir and Mir Bakshi (Commander in Chief) respectively. They came to be known as "king-makers" due to their dubious king making role during the period of the later Mughals.

In order to make his position supreme, Farrukhsiyar indulged in intrigues but ultimately failed in his endeavour. He was finally deposed and murdered in April 1717 by Saiyid Brothers who were assisted by Ajit Singh of Marwar in this act.

Asvaghosha: Buddhist poet and Philosopher

Asvaghosha was a great Buddhist Scholar who was a contemporary of the great Kushan ruler Knishka. Asvaghosha has been described as “poet, musician, preacher, moralist, philosopher, playwright, tale-teller… an inventor in all these arts…he recalls Milton, Goethe, Kant and Voltaire.”

Asvaghosha is the author of the famous Buddhist tract, Vajrasuchi (Diamond needle). Buddhacharita, the earliest surviving classical Sanskrit work written in verse, is also ascribed to him.

Ashvaghosha was part of the fourth Buddhist Council. 

Madan Lal Dhingra: Real Hero of India

A great revolutionary from Punjab, Madan Lal Dhingra (1887-1909) went to England in 1906 to pursue higher education in Engineering. In England he came in close contact with the Indian revolutionary leaders like Shyamji Krishna Varma and VD Savarkar. He was also associated with the Indian Home Rule Society, the Abhinav Bharat Society and the India House in London. To avenge the atrocities committed by the British in India, he shot dead Curzon Wyllie, an Advisor to the Secretary of the state of India, and Cowas Lalcaca at the meeting of the Indian National Assocaition in London on July 1, 1909.

During his trial he owned the responsibility for murdering Wyllie. When the death-sentence was pronounced on him, he told the Judge: “I am proud to have the honour of laying down my humble life…A son like myself has nothing else to offer to the mother, but his own blood, and so I have sacrificed the same on her life: “The Only lesson required in India at present is to learn how to die and the only way to teach it is by dying ourselves. Therefore, I die and glory in my martyrdom.”

Khudiram Bose, Great Hero of India

Today India is celebrating 64th anniversary of its Independence, it is time to bow our head to those who laid down their lives for the cause of Indian Independence. One such name is Khudiram Bose [1889-1908], a revolutionary from Bengal born in the Midnapore district of West Bengal. 

One of India’s earliest revolutionaries to die on the gallows on August 11, 1908, Khudiram Bose was member of the revolutionary society the Yugantar of Barindra Ghosh. He along with Prufulla Chaki threw a bomb at the carriage of Kingsford, an English Judge at Muzaffarpur in Bihar. He was arrested in the Muzaffarpur Conspiracy case and sentenced to death at the young age of 18.

Happy 65th Indian Independence Day

As we celebrate our 65th Independence Day today, I am posting this poem of Sir Walter Scot that is poignant with emotion and passion that is in short supply among the so called masters of Indian destiny:



Breathes there the man, with soul so dead,
Who never to himself hath said,
'This is my own, my native land!'
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned,
As home his footsteps he hath turned,
From wandering on a foreign strand!
If such there breathe, go, mark him well;
For him no Minstrel raptures swell;
High though his titles, proud his name,
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim;
Despite those titles, power, and pelf,
The wretch, concentred all in self,
Living, shall forfeit fair renown,
And, doubly dying, shall go down
To the vile dust, from whence he sprung,
Unwept, unhonoured, and unsung.


Happy Indian Independence Day

Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)

Lord Ellenborough brought the Afghan War to an end and the honour and might of the British were vindicated by a successful expedition to Kabul. His short regime was marked by two high-handed acts of injustice, namely, the annexation of Sindh and the coercion of Sindhia into a humiliating treaty. On account of his defiance of the orders of the court of directors of the East India Company, he was recalled in 1848.

Sena Dynasty of Bengal

The political space after the decline of the Pala power in Bengal was occupied by the Senas whose king Vijayasena succeeded in conquering a large part of Pala territory. The Senas were the supporters of orthodox Hinduism. The dynasty traces its origin to the South, to the Chalukyas.

The founder of the Sena rule was Samantasena who described himself as a kshatriya of Karnata and born in a family of “Brahma-Kshatriya" at a place called Radha in West Bengal. The title Brahma-Kshatriya indicates that Samantasena was a Brahmin but his successors called themselves simply Kshatriyas. He himself states that he fought the outlaws of Karnata and later turned an ascetic.

Samantasena was succeeded by Vijayasena who consolidated the Sena power. According to the Deopara inscription composed by the poet Dhoyi, Vijayasena is credited with defeating “Navya (ruler of Mithila and Nepal) and Vira. The Gauda kingdom was attacked by him who also humbled the ruler of Kamrupa. He also defeated many minor kings and is said to have dispatched his fleet along the course of the Ganga.” Vijayasena established tow capitals, Vikrampura in East Bengal and Vijayapuri in West Bengal.

After the death of Vijayasena, Ballalsena (1165-85) ascended the throne. The literary texts Ballalacharita and Laghubharata, Mithala formed part of the Sena kingdom as the fifth province. Varendra, Vagdi, Radha and Vanga were the other four provinces. Ballalsena was a man of literary taste. He is said to have authored Adbhutasagara, a work on astronomy, and Danasagara, a work on Smriti. Ballalsena is known to have started a social movement known as Kulinism by which the nobility of birth and purity of blood were carefully protected.

Ballalsena was succeeded by Lakshmana Sena who surrendered meekly to the Turkish invader Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and escaped for his life by flight in 1194. Lakshmanasena fled the Sena capital at Nadia (renamed Lakhnauti or Lakshmanavati) and took refuge at Vikrampura in East Bengal where his sons Visvarupasena and Kesavasena continued to rule. Visvarupasena ruled for fourteen years while Kesavasena for three years.

Though politically an effete, Lakshmanasena, however, was a patron of great literary minds of the day. Jayadev, author of Gita Govinda, Halayudha Mishra, the linguist, and Dhoyi, author of Pavanadutam, adorned his court.

Yama: the God of Death

Yama was one of the earlier Indian gods. As the death god of the Vedas, he was one of the Lokapalas, or Guardian of the Universe. He was the Lokpala of southern quarter. In the Vedic period he was the lord of the dead and Guardian of the World of the Fathers, where he blessed the dead.

At the approach of the medieval period , his role began to get somewhat altered for he was no longer the cheerful lord of paradise, but the stern judge of the dead, ruling over the purgatories where the wicked suffered until their rebirth. The idea of a divine judge, theoretically unnecessary according to the doctrine of karma, may have been imported from the west, where it was known in many cults.

Sometimes Yama, aided by his clerk Chitragupta, is described as weighing the deeds of the souls of the dead in a balance, rather like the Egyptian Throth.

Lingayat: Shaivite sect in South India

Lingayat or Virashaivas was an important Shaivite sect, founded by Basava, a minister of King Bijala Kalchuri who usurped the throne of the Chalukyas of Kalyani in A. D. 1156. This sect is famous more for its cult and social doctrines than for its theology, which is a “qualified monism” with few striking features.

Basava opposed idolatry. In Lingayatism the only scared symbol is the linga of Shiva, a specimen of which is always carried on the person of the believer. Radical in his view, Basava completely rejected the Vedas and authority of the Brahmin class, and priesthood-the jangamas. Apart from opposing pilgrimage and sacrifice he instituted complete equality among his followers, even to the equality of women who were permitted to remarry on the death of their husbands. Among other Aryan practices which Basava condemned was cremation, and his followers are still buried. It is possible that he was influenced by what he had heard of Islam.

The Lingayats still retain their individuality, though they have compromised with orthodoxy in some respects, and they are an important sect in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Their sacred literature is mainly in Kannada and Telgu.

Mahabharata: Great Indian Epic

Earlier of the two great Sanskrit epics of India, the Mahabharata (other being the Ramayana) is written earlier than the other. Considered to be the longest single poem in the world literature, the epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, though it incorporated many episodes in the later centuries. As the poem stands today, it contains about 90, 000 stanzas, most of them of thirty two syllables.

The central story of the Mahabharata concerns a great civil war fought among cousins and brothers for the succession of the throne of the Kuru Kingdom, in the region of the modern delhi, then known as Kurukshetra.

Mara: The Buddhist Satan

The supernatural Mara is a sort of Satan in Buddhist literature. He is best known for his temptation of the historical Buddha. Equipped with sinister motives, he is the Buddhist devil. When the historical Buddha was sitting under the pipal tree awaiting Enlightenment, Mara tried all means to seduce him. First he disguised as a messenger and told Siddhartha that his father Suddhodhana had been put into prison by the Buddha’s wicked cousin Devadatta. This didn’t deter Siddhartha.

Mara then called his armies of demon hosts to attack Gautama with earthquake and flood. Yet Siddhartha sat firm. When Mara challenged Siddhartha to produce evidence of his goodness, he touched the earth, and the earth itself spoke: "I am his witness.”

Lastly Mara brought his three beautiful daughters (Desire, Pleasure and Passion) to seduce Siddhartha. This means also came to naught.

Edwin Arnold: The Light of Asia

Edwin Arnold’s main fame to claim is his magnum opus The Light of Asia, a lengthy poem on the Buddha’s life. An English poet and journalist, Edwin Arnold used Lalitavistara, one of the earliest Mahayana texts, to write the above-mentioned work which became hugely popular in the 19th century.

Slavery in Vijayanagar Empire

Slavery existed in the 16th century Vijayanagar Empire. There are references to besabaga or the sale of human beings during the period. The Vijayanagar inscriptions and the accounts left by the foreign travellers to the kingdom make reference to both male and female slaves.

The condition of the salves was governed by humane regulations and they could not be ill-treated. Italian traveler Nicolo Conti visiting India in the early fifteenth century, says, “They have a vast number of salves, and the debator who is insolvent is everywhere adjudged to be the property of his creditor.” On the whole the masters treated them with kindness and consideration.

Francois Bernier: French Traveller to the Mughal Court

Francois Bernier was a French Traveller to the Mughal Empire in the reign of fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. He was a physician by profession. He was attached to the court of Shah Jahan and was witness to the fierce war of succession among the sons of Shah Jahan. His History of the Late Rebellion in the States of the Great Mughal, describing the war of succession, was published in 1670.

After the battle of Samugah that took place in 1658 between Dara Shikoh, the heir apparent, and Aurangzeb and Murād Bakhsh, other sons of Shah Jahan, Bernier successively joined the services of Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber, the Portuguese at Goa and Sutan Abul Hassan Qutb Shah of Golconda. He later moved to Madras where he died in 1717. His book, Travels in the Mughal Empire, is one of the most valuable sources of the Mughal Empire.

Bernier, a physician by profession, was an eye-witness to the scene in which Dara was paraded in a most undignified manner on the streets of Delhi on 29th August 1659 before being killed on the next day.

He translated French works into Persian for Danishmand Khan, a scholar in the courts of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.  Danishmand Khan had a fascination for European sciences and philosophy  which were taught to him by Bernier who explained him the medial discoveries of William Harvey (1578-1657) and Jean Pecquet (1622-74) as well as the philosophy of Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) and Desartes (1596-1650),

His book, Travel in the Mughal Empire, is one of the most valuable sources of the history of the Mughal empire.

Hair styles in Harappan Civilization

Women, in Indus Valley Civilization also known as Harappan Civilization, wore far more elaborate hairstyles than their men folk. They used to take special care of their hair. Some of the women had a plait tied with a bow at the end. The discovery of the statue of dancing girl from Mohenjadaro attests to the pony tail, so common at the present day.

The men in the Harappan civilization were used to different styles of hair dressing. They used to part hair in the middle and tied it with a bullet. Sometimes the hair was gathered up in a bun or coiled in a ring on top of the head. The crawling child depicted on a clay figure from Mohenjadaro show that curly hair was also in vogue. Men used to trim their beards and shaved the upper lips. There are traces of completely shaven faces with a small beard on the chin. Short beards were preferable.

Caste system in Vedic Period

There was already a class division in the tribal structure of the Aryans when they entered India. However the social divisions became more prominent in the Vedic period due to the racial discriminations between the Aryans and non-Aryans, who after being defeated by the former were treated as Dasas, Dasyus and shudras. Gradually the tribal society of the Aryans were divided into three classes or groups –the priest (Brahmanas), warrior (Kshatriyas) and peasant (vaishyas).

The purusha shukta or creation Hymn of the Rigveda (X, 90, 12) says that Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras originated respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Purusha or Creator. This hymn is taken to be the root of caste system in India. But initially it was varna (literary means colour) and referred to the person of a particular profession, and not of particular birth.

But in the hymns of the Rigveda rigid restriction typical of castle in its mature form is not evident. There is no trace of any restriction on marriage, food and drinks. There were different classes and professions but none, not even the priestly or warrior classes were hereditary. Any person, irrespective of his Varna, who possessed the requisite qualifications, could officiate as a priest and anyone could join the army. In one Rigvedic family the father, mother and the son followed three different vacations viz, those of a poet, a grinder of corn and a physician. Thus if in one family the occupations of the son, the father and the mother were different, a hereditary caste system based on different kinds of avocations were surely absent in the Vedic age.

Chauth and sardeshmukhi: Two important taxes in the Maratha taxation system

Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the two most important taxes in the taxation system of the powerful Maratha state founded by brilliant Maratha leader Shivaji (1627-1680). 

According to Mahadev Govind Ranade, a famous Indian scholar and freedom fighter, chauth was a military tribute that was levied as a quid pro quo for protection against the invasion of a third power. But eminent historian Jadunath Sarkar does not ascribe to this view. According to him, chauth, 25% tax on revenue or produce, was realized from the alien territories to save themselves from the unwelcome presence of the Maratha soldiers and civil underlings. Shivaji was not under obligation to guard the territory from foreign invasion or internal disorder. 

According to another authority S. G Sardesai, chauth was a military tribute paid by the conquered or hostile territories. Since Shivaji was the hereditary sardeshmukh (Chief Headmand) of Maharashtra, he demanded an additional levy of 10 percent known as sardeshmukhi. Historian Ishwari Prasad is of the opinion that desai is the corrupt form of the Sanskrit word deshswami also called deshmukh. The sardeshmukh stood above many desais, and deshmukhs were under the control of the sardeshmukh. Sardeshmukh was paid for his services and this payment was called sardeshmukhi. Shivaji claimed to be the hereditary sardeshmukh of his country.

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat

         Champaner’s Jama Masjid, built by Mahmud Begada/Wikimedia Commons

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat was founded by Zafar Khan, who was appointed governor of Gujarat in 1391 by the ruler of Delhi Sultanate, with the title Muzaffar Khan. Zafar Khan was son of Sadharan, a Jat convert to Islam. Firuz Shah Tughluq was married to Sadharan’s sister. Muzaffar Khan remained loyal to Delhi sultanate and was able to suppress the rebellions of Muslim and Hindu chieftains. Though deposed by his son Tatar Khan in 1403-4, he was restored to the throne by his uncle, Shams Khan Dandani, who poisoned Tatar Khan.

Muzaffar proclaimed his independence as Muzaffer Shah in 1407. After his death in 1411 the throne passed on to Shihabuddin Ahmad Shah who ruled for thirty-one years. During his reign, Ahmad Shah (1411-42), who was son of the dead Tatar Khan, was engaged in continuous warfare and consolidated the Gujarat Sultanate. In 1411 he founded a new walled city which he named Ahmedabad. He built the Jama Masjid in Ahmedabad in 1424. 

Ahmad Shah was succeeded by Muhammad Shah (1442-51), who was followed by Qutubuddin Ahmad Shah II (1451-59). Fath Khan, who became ruler of Gujarat Sultanate at a young age of thirteen as Mahmud Shah (1459-1511), is considered to be the greatest ruler of Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat. Mahmud Shah, also known as Mahmud Begada, died in November 1511. Mahmud was said to have a long beard that reached his girdle, and he tied his very long moustaches behind his head. Mahmud’s successor, Muzaffar II died in 1526. Bahadur Shah who ruled from 1526 to 1537 was the last important ruler of the dynasty.

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Akbar in 1573. Muzaffar Shah III was the last ruler of the Gujarat Sultanate.

Lord Dufferin (1884-88)

Lord Dufferin was appointed the Viceroy of India in 1884. He succeeded Lord Ripon who ruled from 1880 to 1884. Dufferin’s administration in India saw the Third Burmese War in 1885, resulting in the annexation of upper Burma. As a result, his viceroyalty saw the final extinction of Burma as an independent power.

Another event which was of utmost consequences for the future was the foundation of the Indian National Congress (INC) by A. O. Hume and S. N. Banerjee in 1885.

But in the North-west, the Panjdeh incident on the border of Afghanistan brought Britain to the verge of war with Russia. But a s result of the possibility of this war, the total strength of the Indian army was raised.

Iron Pillar of Meharauli: A technical Achievement of Ancient India

Iron Pillar of Meharauli in Delhi is a memorial dedicated to a king called Chandra, who has been identified with Chandra Gupta II (c 376-415) of the Gupta dynasty. Originally erected on a hill in Ambala, Iron Pillar now stands the near the renowned Qutab Minar, one of the greatest monuments of Muslim India. Over twenty three feet high, the pillar consists of a single piece of iron. Though produced some 1500 years ago, the Iron Pillar of Meharauli shows no sign of rusting. This is testimony to the high level of metallurgical skill of ancient India.

Nalanda university as related by Hiuen-Tsang

Established in 5th century AD, Nalanda was a famous university of ancient India. During the rule of Harsha, the fame of university reached far and wide. Under the Pala ruler Dharampal, the glory of the university reached its zenith. The renowned Chinese traveler Hiuen-Tsang who came to India during the rule of Harshvardhan and studied at Nalanda, has mentioned the Nalanda university in glowing terms. From his accounts it can be said that the university was a great centre of education and was famous even in far-off countries. According to Hiuen-Tsang, the number of students at the university was ten thousand and the faculty consisted of great minds drawn from different parts of India.

Separate buildings were used for the study of the students. Some buildings had the sitting capacity of ten thousand students. The library of the university was very big and consisted of three buildings, one of them nine storied.

Admission to Nalanda university was a tough affair. The rules of the university were tough and had to be obeyed. Students were not required to pay any fee. The expenses of the university were met by the donations given by the rulers and the rich.

Remembering Guru Arjan on his death anniversary

Today is the death anniversary of Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru of Sikhism. Guru Arjan died in 1606 in Lahore (Pakistan). 

Guru Arjan was executed by orders of fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir, who ruled from 1605 to 1627. He was charged with treason because he had given shelter to Prince Khusrau at Tarn Taran, who had rebelled against his father Jahangir for the Mughal throne. Khusrau was captured, confined and subsequently killed by Shah Jahan (fifth Mughal emperor) in 1622. 

Guru Arjan was at first fined by the Imperial Mughal power, but as he refused to pay the fine he was sentenced to death.

European Power in India

Portugal was the first European power to establish factories and trading settlements in India in the early 16th century. Portuguese were followed by Dutch, British, Danes and French. In the 18th century with the downfall of the Mughal Empire, these Europeans countries began to take greater interest in Indian politics. By the early 19th century the British East Indian Company had outsmarted its rivals and held sway over most of the Indian sub-continent.

The ease with which the British became the master of India is a measure of the political decadence of the country at the time. By the middle of the 19th century the whole of India came under either the direct control of the British or petty princes being supported by them.

The British rule came to an end in 1947 when India became independent.

Kaveripattinam: the chief port of Chola kingdom

Kaveripattinam, the chief port of the ancient Chola kingdom, was situated at the mouth of Kaveri river. It is today identified with Puhar, a town in the Mayiladuthurai district of Tamil Nadu. Kaveripattinam is also known as Kaveripaddinam, and Kaveripumpattinam. 

Once the capital of the early Chola rulers, Kaveripattinam has been described in various Sangam works and also in Ptolemy’s Geography and the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. According to a Sinhalese source, spacious harbour of Kaveripattinam was built by soldiers captured by the great Chola King Karikalan in a raid on Ceylon. During the first three centuries of the Christian era, Kaveripattinam was a prosperous city inhabited by rich merchants, traders, craftsmen and sailors.

Champa: Important port of Ancient India

Situated in Bhagalpur district of Bihar, Champa was the capital of ancient Anga in the sixth century BC. It was of great commercial importance. It was a river port from which ships world said down the Ganga and coast to south India and Sri Lanka. These ships returned with jewels and spices which were much in demand in the north India. From Champa seafaring merchants went to distant islands. Champa was also a place of pilgrimage for the Buddhists and the Jaina alike. At a time of the Buddha’s great decease, known as Mahaparinirvana in Buddhist phraseology, Ananda, one of the most famous disciples, said that he regretted that his master was to die in so small a town as Kushinagar and mentioned Champa as one of the six places (others being Sravasti, Rajagriha, Saketa, Kausambi and Kasi) where he considered important enough for his master to die in. This proves that Champa was evidently one of the greatest cities of the 5th century BC.

History of Uttar Pradesh

The territory that constitutes present day Uttar Pradesh was made home by the Aryans in 2000 BC. The ancient kingdom of Kosala of which Rama of Ramayana was king was located in the state of Uttar Pradesh. According to tradition, Krishna, the preacher of Bhagwat Gita, was born in the city of Mathura.

Uttar Pradesh remained part of the most of the great kingdoms of India including the Mauryan (320-200 BC), Kushan (100-250 AD) and Gupta (350-600 AD) empires. After the downfall of the Guptas, Harshavardhana rose into prominence with Kannauj at his capital. After Harshavardhana’s death, his empire fell into pieces. There arose many kingdoms which were ruled mostly by Rajputs.

Uttar Pradesh came under the control of Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. Agra and Fatehpur Sikri served as the capital cities of Akbar, the greatest Mughal Emperor of India. After the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the state was ruled by different rulers. Chief among them were the Nawabs of Oudh who ruled Lucknow in the 18th century.

Uttar Pradesh was the main centre of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, also know as India’s First War of Independence.

History of Tripura

Known as Kirat Desh in times of antiquity, Tripura has been referred to in the great epic of Mahabharata as well as ancient Hindu scriptures including the Puranas. That the region was under the control of the 3rd century BC Mauryan Emperor Ashoka is proved by the pillar inscriptions that were erected by the great Maurya in many parts of his expansive kingdom.

Tripura derives its name from the great king of the same name, a contemporary of Yudhishtara of Mahabharata fame, tracing his descent to King Druya and Bhabru. According to other school of thought the region derives its name from the temple of Tripuri Sundari, situated at Radhakrishnapur in the state.

A princely state of great antiquity, Tripura was under the control of Tripuri Kings (Habugra) who ruled the territory for three millennia under the title of Manikya. Udaipur in South Tripura district was seat of government of the Manikyas whose King Krishna Manikya, in the 18th century, transferred the capital form Udaipur to Old Agartala. Agartala became the seat of power in the 19th Century. When India became independent there was clamour for the integration of the princely states into the India union. As a result of Ganamukti Parishad movement, Tripura was integrated with India in 1949. Tripura attained full statehood in 1972.

Taj Mahal, the Symbol of India

The symbol of India, the Taj Mahal at Agra is known the world over. In fact, this is the most resplendent of the Indian sites, one certainly not to miss even in the most perfunctory of tours. Situated 125 miles (200km) south of Delhi, Agra is an essential stop in any tour of India.

Built under the reign of the fifth Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century, this mausoleum of his wife, Arjumand Banu Begum (better known as Mumtaz Mahal), is the very pinnacle of Mughal architecture. It is called the Taj Mahal after the title of the empress. It has been poetically described as “a tender elegy in marble.”

The belief that the Taj owes its design to a Venetian, Gernimo Verrones, is misleading. The Taj is the crowing glory and culmination of the Mughal architecture. It was commenced in 1631 and completed some time around 1653. The monument is rightly regarded as one of the wonders of the world for its beauty and magnificence.

The grandest achievement of the Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal, is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Taj Mahal was the result of the efforts of over 12, 000 workers, over a period of 22 years. The cost incurred on the construction in those times was 50 (5 million) Rupees.

History of Tamil Nadu

The excavations at Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli in the state of Tamil Nadu, points to settlements of people in the pre-historic times.

The ancient period in Tamil Nadu is marked by the emergence of the four Tamil kingdoms of the Chera, Chola, Pandya and Pallavas. Apart from these dynasties, an obscure power named Kalabhras succeeded in displacing the three Tamil kingdoms between the fourth and the seventh centuries CE. The period is referred to as the Dark Age in the history of Tamil Nadu. The Kalabhras were later expelled by the Pallavas and the Pandyas.

The Pallavas who ruled Tamil Nadu were the contemporaries of the Rashtrakutas. The early history of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery, but Simhavishnu Avanisimha, who ascended the throne in about 575 AD, is considered to e the real founder of the Pallava dynasty. Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I were the great rulers of the Pallavas dynasty. Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas whose contribution to the Dravidian architecture was immense. The Shore Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was built by Narasimhavarman II.

Pallavas were followed by the Pandyas in the 8th century. With their capital Madurai, Pandyas were referred to as the richest kingdom by the famous traveller Marco Polo. The greatness of the Cholas as described by Asoka was restored by Vijayalaya, who began his rule in 850 AD. The greatest kings of the Chola Empire were Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola. Mahipala, the pala king of Bengal was defeated by Rajendra Chola. To commemorate this victory he founded a new capital and called it Gangaikonda Cholapuram, identified with modern Gangakundapuram in Tiruchirapalli district of Tamil Nadu.

The Vijayanagara Empire which ruled over the entire Tamil Nadu was founded in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka. This empire ruled for two centuries with the defeat of Vijayanagara forces in the Battle of Talikota against the Muslim forces of Deccan in 1565.

In 1968, Madras State became the state of Tamil Nadu.

Bharukachcha: An important port of ancient India

Located on the banks of the Narmada, Bharukachcha, the modern Broach in Gujarat, was the most famous port and commercial centre of Gujarat in ancient India. It was one of the chief ports of ancient India. It has been frequently mentioned in several Buddhist and Sanskrit works. From the early centuries of the Christian era till the close of the thirteenth century, Bharukachcha, remained a prosperous town and a thriving port under the successive dynasties which ruled Gujarat.

Sir Alexander Cunningham: Father of Indian Archeology

Alexander Cunningham was one of the colleagues of James Prinsep. He assisted the later in the decipherment of the Brahmi script. The decipherment of the Brahmi script led to the reading of the Asokan edicts. Thus the world came to know about the great emperor.

Alexander Cunningham was an officer of the Royal engineers. He came to India in 1831. Since his arrival in the country, he devoted his time to the study of the ancient remains of Indian history. Alexander Cunningham recorded the existence of a series of mounds after visiting Harappan site. He is credited to have conducted a limited excavation of the Harappan site. He published a few Objects (such as seals) as well as the site-plan. He was appointed Archeological Surveyor in 1862.

Indian Indology owes a lot to Sir Alexander Cunningham. He is rightly called father of Indian archeology.

History of Himachal Pradesh

After coming into the control of many dynasties including those of Gupats and Harshavardhana, the territory of Himachal Pradesh was divided into small principalities headed by chieftains. Some of these small kingdoms were ruled by Rajput chieftains.

These principalities were invaded by the Muslim armies at regular intervals. At the beginning of the 10th century, Mahmud Ghaznavi launched a military campaign against Kangra and captured it.

Timur and Sikander Lodi also made similar raids. Many of the hill kingdoms became vassals of the Mughal empire. 

During India’s struggle for freedom, most of the princely states of Himachal Pradesh either remained indifferent or supported the cause of the British. After becoming a Union Territory on 1 November 1956, Himachal Pradesh became the eighteenth state of the Indian Union on 18 December 1970 thanks to the enactment of the State of Himachal Pradesh Act by the Indian Parliament

History of Maharashtra

The area that constitutes the present day state of Maharashtra was the scene of the flourishing of many dynasties. After coming into the control of the Mauryan Empire, Satavahana kingdom held its sway over the territory. Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, was the capital of the Satavahanas at one point of time.

During the Satavahana period, Maharashtra became a great centre of culture and learning. The official language of Satavahana was Maharashtri, which later developed into Marathi. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satkarni, who took pride in calling himself the destroyer of the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks) and Pahlavas (Parthians). He is credited to have started the Shalivahana era, a new calendar, still used by the Maharashtrians. Sri Yajna Satkarni was the last great king of the Satavahana kingdom. According to some Puranas, 19 kings of this dynasty ruled for 300 years, while according to others, 30 kings ruled for 465 years. The dynasty came to an end about the middle of the third century A.D.

After the fall of the Satavahana dynasty, the eastern part of Maharashtra came under the control of Vakatakas. Among other dynasties that ruled over the territory the Rashtrakutas, and the Yadavas of Deogiri find special mention.

The invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate rulers Ala-ud-din Khalji, and later Muhammad bin Tughluq took control of the territory of Maharashtra. After the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate, the area became part of the Bahmani Sultanate.

The greatest name in the history of Maharashtra was that of Shivaji who by dint of his hard work and sheer tenacity succeeded in creating a kingdom covering most of Maharashtra and nearly half of India in a short span of his life. He was the nemesis of Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor. Shivaji was born in the fort of Shivaner in 1627 and deied on April, 1680.

Shivaji's death was followed by internal dissensions in the newly created Maratha Kingdom. There was a dispute about succession between the two sons of Shivaji. Finally Sambhaji ascended the throne in 1680. He was captured, and after cruel torture for more than three weeks, he was brutally put to death by Aurangzeb.

Rajaram's nephew & Sambhaji's son, Shahu Bhosale (born May 18, 1682) who had been in Mughal captivity since November 3, 1689, was liberated on May 8, 1707. He was recognized as the king of the Marathas. This was resented by Rajaram’s wife Tara Bai. However, Shahu ultimately came out victorious, manly with the help and advice of a Chitpavan Brahmana from Konkan, named Balaji Viswanath.

Balaji’s character and capacity and the peculiar circumstances of the country favoured the rise of the Peshwas to power and renown. He has been rightly called the second founder of the Maratha state.

After the death of Balaji Viswanath, his eldest son Bajiroa, a young man of hardly twenty, was appointed the Peshwa by Sahu. Under him the Maratha power reached its zenith.

Maharashtra played an important role in India’s freedom struggle. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji were some of the prominent leaders of the freedom struggle.

Maharashtra became a full fledged state on May 1, 1960, when Bombay Presidency State was bifurcated into the new linguistic states of Gujarat and Maharashtra.

History of Madhya Pradesh

Various dynasties held their sway over the territory that constitutes the present day state of Madhya Pradesh. Many places in the state find mention in the ancient scriptures such as Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Khajuraho

The city of Ujjain, earlier known as Avanti, made its mark as a major center of power and learning in the sixth century BC. The whole area came under the control of the Maurya Empire (321 to 185 BCE). After the downfall of the Mauryan Empire, the territory was ruled by various dynasties including the Satavahana and the Sakas.

The Gupta dynasty which ruled over the state is considered to be golden period of the Indian history. The medieval period witnessed the emergence of several dynasties including the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandelas of Bundelkhand. The world heritage site of Khajuraho temples were built by the Chandelas of Bundelkhand.

The territory came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. The present day Madhya Pradesh came into being on 1 November 2000, following its bifurcation to create a new state of Chhattisgarh.

History of Dadra and Nagar Haveli

One of the few Portuguese colonies, Dadra and Nagar Haveli is currently a Union Territory in western India. The territory came under the rule of the Portuguese dominion in India in 1779 and remained under their control till 1954.

India’s independence in 1947 instilled a sense of patriotism and confidence in the residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli who were now filled with the desire of throwing of the yoke of foreign rule. As a result, a movement was started under the aegis of the United Front of Goans (UFG) and the National Movement Liberation Organisation (NMLO) resulting in the independence of Dadra and Nagar Haveli from the Portuguese rule. The movement was ably supported by the Azad Gomantak Dal and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.

Dadra and Nagar Haveli, thus, became a free nation. The residents of the territory sought help from the Government of India. From 1954 to 1961 Dadra and Nagar Haveli was administered by a body called the Varishta Panchayat of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli.

In 1961, when Goa, Daman, and Diu were annexed into India, Dadra and Nagar Haveli formally joined the Republic of India.

Lord Mountbatten: The Last Viceroy of India

Lord Mountbatten, a member of the British Royal family, assumed office as Viceroy on March 24, 1947 and was the last Viceroy of India. His administration in India witnessed the creation of the independent states of India and Pakistan, Mountbatten , after meeting various warring groups, came to the conclusion that only solution to the constitutional impasse was partition of the country and he won over the congress leaders to that viewpoint.

On June 3, 1947 (June 3rd Plan) the plan to partition India was announced. On July 4, 1947, the Indian independence act was introduced in the House of Commons by British Prime Minister Clement Attlee. Two boundary commissions were set up- one for the partition of Bengal and other for the partition of Punjab. Sir Cyril Radcliffe was appointed the chairman of both commissions. On August 7 Jinnah left India for Karachi and the constituent assembly of Pakistan elected him as its president.

The constituent assembly of the Indian union met in Delhi on the night of August 14. In an atmosphere charged with excitement, Nehru addressed the members. The events of the partition ad its aftermath led to the largest migration of population in the world history.

Lord Mountbatten was killed by IRA guerillas while on holiday in the Irish republic.

Bilhana: the Great Kashmiri Poet

A famous 11th-century Kashmiri poet, Bilhana ‘s claim to fame is his love poem, Caurapancasika (Fifty Stanzas of the Thief’). In a class of its own, Caurapancasika describes the secret love of a bold housebreaker and a princess and is full of intense emotion. Born in Kashmir, Bilhana left his native place to seek employment in the court of Later Chalukyas.

Bilhana is known for composing a eulogy of the great Western Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya VI titled Vikramankadevacharita (“Deeds of Vikramaditya). It is stated in Vikramankadevacharita that Vikramaditya VI was asked by Shiva to replace his elder brother who was the reigning Chalukya monarch.

Sharqi Dynasty of Jaunpur

The efforts of rulers of the Delhi Sultanate to assert their rule over the conquered territories became unsuccessful. As a result several provincial dynasties came into being and wielded substantial sovereign power and contributed to the growth of art, architecture and literature. 

One such dynasty was the Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur, north of Varanasi in the present Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur was founded by Malik Sarwar, a eunuch belonging to Sultan Firuz Tughluq. Malik Sarwar’s astonishingly fast rise to power can be attributed to the chaos that ruled supreme after the death of Firuz in 1388. He was made wazir of the Delhi sultanate by Firuz’s younger son, Muhammad Shah (1390-93) who conferred on him the title of Sultanush-Sharq (Ruler of the Eastern Kingdom). 

Malik Sarwar’s rise continued and in 1394 was appointed governor of Jaunpur, where he successfully repulsed the uprisings by the Hindu chiefs of Bihar and Avadh. The chiefs of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran and Tirhut were forced to accept his suzerainty. When Timur, the terrible Mongol leader of Central Asia, left Delhi in 1399 after his invasion of India, Sarwar proclaimed himself the independent ruler of Jaunpur. At the time of his death in 1399, his kingdom extended to Kol (modern Aligarh), Rapri (Mainpuri district) and Sambhal (Muradabad). The eastern boundaries of Sharqi kingdom ran along Tirhut and Bihar. 

Malik Sarwar was succeeded to the throne by his adopted son Malik Mubarak Qaranfal (1399-1401). His reign was not eventful. After him, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40), the younger brother of Malik Sarwar, became the ruler of Jaunpur and was the greatest of the Sharqi rulers. He entered into an alliance with Kirti Singh of Tirhut. He sent his forces to help the ruler of Tirhut when the latter was invaded by a Muslim army. Another military expedition of Ibrahim Shah Sharqi was the invasion of Bengal to remove the Hindu ruler Ganesha from the throne. The small independent sultanate of Kalpi was also annexed to his kingdom. His military ambition did not stop. He invaded the Delhi sultanate which was being ruled by the Saiyid ruler Muhammad Shah (1435-46). The Saiyid ruler was forced to make an alliance which was sealed with a marriage between Ibrahim’s son and the Sultan’s daughter. 

Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Muhmud Shah Sharqi (1440-57), who was also an ambitious ruler. After Mahmud’s death, Muhmmad became the next Sharqi ruler, who was deposed after a few months because of his excessive cruelty. Muhmmad was succeeded by Husain Shah Sharqi, who concluded peace with Bahlul Lodi, the founder of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. He is credited to have strengthening his army, and compelled Gwalior and Orissa to submit to his rule. The Lodi rulers of Delhi Sultanate were keen to extend their rule and as result invaded the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur. In 1494, Husain Shah Sharqi suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Bahlul's successor, Sultan Sikandar Lodi, and was unable to withstand the forces of Delhi Sultanate and as a result the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur was annexed into the Delhi Sultanate. 

Husain Shah died in 1505. Husayn Shah Sharqi was a musical expert and creator of many ragas. He is credited with making improvements to Khayal, a genre of Hindustani classical music. 

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar

One of the pioneers of social reforms in British India, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-1895) was born at Tembhu in Satara district of Maharashtra. He was one of the founders of the Deccan Education Society in 1884, with Lokmanya Tilak, Vishnushastri Chipalunkar and Madhavrao Namjoshi being the other members. Agarkar was also one of the founder members of the Fergusson College in Pune in 1885. In 1891 he became the Principal of the Fergusson College in 1892 and held that office till his unexpected death in 1895.

Agarkar was the first editor of Marathi weekly the Kesari and English weekly the Mahratta started by Lokmanya Tilak. Following his differences with Tilak, he started his own weekly the Sudharak In 1888. Gopal Krishna Gokhale used to contribute to this weekly.

Throughout his life, Agarkar fought to raise the age of marriage for boys and girls.

Samudragupta: The Greatest Gupta Emperor

Samudragupta, was greatest ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He was son and successor of Chadragupta I. He succeeded to the throne in c. 350 AD. He ruled for about 25 years. A skillful military leader and administrator as well as a patron of learning, Samudragupta is called Indian Napolean.

His court poet Harishena composed an eloquent eulogy of him which is contained in the Allahabad pillar inscription (API).

Samudragupta is credited to have uprooted Nagasena, Achyuta and Ganapatinaga, (identified with the rulers of Padmavati, Ahichchhatra and Mathura respectively). He is said to have captured the prince of the Kota family (Bulandshahr region) and besieged the city of ‘Pushpa’(probably Kanyakubja).

Apart from these conquests, Samudragupta brought under his control a large number of kings and vassals. According to eminent historian K. P. Jaiswal, Samudragupta forced Rudrasena I of the Vakatava dynasty to cede his North Indian possession to the Gupta Empire. To commemorate this victory the Gupta emperor built a temple dedicated to Vishnu at Eran (an ancient Indian historical city in Sagar district in Madhya Pradesh).

A Chinese text mentions that the Sri Lanka ruler Shrimeghavarna sent an embassy to Samudraguta requesting him to allow for the erection of a monastery for the Simhalese pilgrims at Bodha-Gaya (in the state of Bihar.)

Samudragupta was a great promoter of art and learning. He himself has authored a poetical work called the Krishan Charitam. On one of his gold coins, he has been represented as seated on a high-backed couch playing in a vina (lyre or lute) which lies on his knees. All these show that he has rightly earned the title of Kaviraja.

Origin of the word ‘Sufi’

In medieval India, Sufism was an important aspect of Islam. Various authorities have offered different explanations regarding the origin of the word “Sufi”. According to one school of thought, the term Sufi has been derived from ‘suf’ or garments of coarse wool that were worn by the Sufi saints as a badge of poverty. Abu Nasral Sarraj, the author of an Arabic treatise on Sufism, traces the origin of term by the word suf (wool).

Generally, authorizes are of the opinion that virtuous people were called safa. Hence the nomenclature Sufi. According to another school of though, the term has been derived from the Greek word Sophia meaning wisdom or knowledge.

Jahiz of Basra was the first writer to use the word Sufi in 869 A.D. Jami mentions that sufi was first applied to Abu Hashim of Kufa in the 8th century while Aul-Kusheri opines that this term was introduced in A.D.811.

Famous Quotes from Mahatma Gandhi

“A coward is incapable of exhibiting love; it is the prerogative of the brave.”

“A weak man is just by accident. A strong but non-violent man is unjust by accident.”

“An eye for an eye only ends up making the whole world blind.”

“Anger is the enemy of non-violence and pride is a monster that swallows it up.”

“But for my faith in God, I should have been a raving maniac.”

“I am prepared to die, but there is no cause for which I am prepared to kill.”

“I believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the world.”

“I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and Non-violence are as old as the hills. All I have done is to try experiments in both on as vast a scale as I could.”

“I reject any religious doctrine that does not appeal to reason and is in conflict with morality.”

Tukaram: 17th century Marathi and Saint

Tukaram was born in the family of a farmer at Dehu, a town near the city of Pune . He inheritred some landed property and cattle, but lost them all in a great famine. He also lost his parents, one of his two wives, and a son in the famine. Left with nothing to fend for, he lost interest in life. Added to this, constant nagging of his other wife, who was a shrew, troubled Tukaram very much. Fed up with the turn of events, Tukaram took to the study of the works of Jnaneswar, Ekanatha and Namdeva he retreated to the hills of Bhamhanatha and Bhandara and practised mediation.

Tukaram is credited to have written several abhangas, which are highly popular in Maharshtra. These abhangas embody his teachings. Some of these abhangas were translated into Bengali by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. A contemporary of great Maratha ruler Shivaji, Tukaram declined to accept the offer of rich presents made by him.

Keshab Chandra Sen: The doyen of Social Reforms in Pre-independent India

Born to a respectable family in Calcutta on 19 November 1838, Keshab Chandra Sen was one of the most famous social reformers of India and took the leadership of the Brahmo Samaj during the absence of Debendranath Tagore. A strong votary of widow remarriage, Keshab Chandra Sen started Bamabodhini Patrika, a journal for women.

Keshab Chandra Sen launched several radical reforms, such as giving up of caste names, advocating inter caste marriage and launched movement against the social vices prevailing at that time like child marriage. These radical reforms resulted in the first schism in the Brahmo Samaj. The original Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, came to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj and the other, the Brahmo Samaj of India was established by Keshab Chandra Sen in 1867.

In 1870 Keshab Chandra Sen founded the India Reform Association which succeeded in persuading the British Government to enact the Native Marriage Act of 1972 (popularly known as Civil Marriage Act) legalizing the Brahmo marriages and fixing the minimum marriageable age for boys and girls.

It was under the advice of Keshab Chandra Sen that the reformist Dayanand Saraswati began to use Hindi for his writings and teachings.  

Avalokitesvar: The Lord who looks down

There are numerous Bodhisattvas in the universe of the Mahayana Buddhism. Chief among them is Avalokiteśvara (the "Lord who looks down"), also called Padmapani (the Lotus Beraer). He is an embodiment of compassion and his helping hand reaches even to Avici, the deepest and most unpleasant of the Buddhist purgatories.

Karanda-vyuha is an important Mahayana text that glorifies the compassionate qualities of Avalokiteshvara and his different forms and manifestations.

History of Christianity in India

Christianity has quite a good presence in India. Ever since its early years, Christianity has had its roots in India. If we are to rely on a tradition, India come in contact with Christianity very early. In fact tradition credits the Disciple Thomas himself with evangelizing India. The legend has it that Gondophares, one of the Pahalva rulers, was converted by St. Thomas himself. According to Roman Catholics, tomb of St. Thomas was buried in the cathedral at Mailapur or Mylapore in the southern part of Chennai.

If we have to put aside the legend, the first definite historical evidence to the Christian activity can be found in the Topografia Christiana (Christian Topography) of Cosmas Indicopleustes, an adventurous Alexendrian monk of the 6th century AD. Cosmas Indicopleustes, literally meaning who sailed to India, left a voluminous account of his travels. Indicopleustes saw churched in Kerala and according to him these churches were in the hands of Persian priests. This amounts to the explanation that Christians in India had embraced the Nestorian heresy, then widespread in Persia. When Christianity was stamped out in Persia, the Christians in India benign to be guided by the patriarch of Syria and continues to be so even today.

At the end of the 15th century Italian traveler Marco Polo referred to the tomb of St. Thomas and dwelt on its popularity as a sacred place.

According to The Anglo Saxon Chronicle in 884 AD, King Alfred sent an envoy to India to with rich present for the tomb of St Thomas. The envoy named Sithelm returned home with rich gifts given to him by the Chola king Aditya I.

There are several Christian communities in India, who on a whole constitute approx2.34% of the Indian population with Roman Catholics forming the majority of Indian Christians. Today Christians mostly live in the northeast states of India as well as in the southwestern states of Kerala and Goa.

Battle of Plassey

Date : June 23rd, 1757
Place: Plassey (present day Palashi ) on the Ganga in Nadia district of West Bengal

Image source: commons.wikimedia.org/

The battle of Plassey was fought between the army of Siraj-ud-Doula, the last independent Nawab of Bengal and the troops of the British East India Company under Robert Clive. Clive had 1100 Europeans and 200 sepoys whereas Siraj-ud-doula’s army composed of about 50,000 men strengthened by a train of heavy artillery. However about 45000 of the Nawab’s troops were under command of three traitors Mir Jafar, Yar Latif khan and Rai Durlabhram. Mir Jafar was the general of Siraj-ud-doula. A small force under Mohanlal and Mir Madan joined the battle.

After Mir Madan’s death from a stray shot, Siraj-ud-doula suspended the fight for the day on Mir Jafar’s treacherous advice. The withdrawal result in the complete disaster for the nawab’s army. Fearing his life Siraj fled from the battle. The chaos reigned supreme. The casualty on English side numbered 23 killed and 49 wounded. 500 were killed on Nawab’s side.

Though battle of Plassey was a mere skirmish, going by the results of the battle it can be safely concluded that its importance was more than that of the some of the greatest battles of the world. It facilitated the British conquest of Bengal and subsequently the whole of India.

Indulal Yajnik: A brief biography

Born at Nadiad in the present-day Kheda district of Gujarat, Indulal Yajnik was one of the finest editors. A freedom fighter, social worker and peasant leader from Gujarat he was a gifted journalist.

He was associated with the home rule movement started by Annie Besant. Yajnik actively participated in the Kaira Satyagraha organized by Gandhi to secure exemption for the peasants from payment of land tax for the crops that had failed. He launched two Gujarati monthlies – Navjivan Ame Saty and Yugadharm and a daily Nutnan Gujarat.

Indulal Yajnik established schools for the Bhil children and was the secretary of the Antyaj Sava Mandal, with Thakkar Bapa as its president. He was actively associated with the Kisan Sabha work and organsied the cooperative movement among the peasants of Gujarat. In 1942 he presided over the annual session of Akhil Hind Kisan Sabha. He was a founder of the Gujarat Vidyapeeth. In 1956 he took lead in the Maha Gujarat Movement for a separate state and became founder president of the Maha Gujarat Janta Parishad.

Samarth Ramdasa , great Marathi saint of Bhakti Movement

Born in a Brahmin family in 1608 Ramdasa was the spiritual guru of the great Maratha ruler Shivaji. He travelled throughout India for twelve years and finally settled at Chaphal on the banks of the Krishna where he built a temple. During the political upheaval Ramdasa regarded the realization of God as primary aim.

Samarth Ramdasa established monasteries in different parts of Maharashtra. These monasteries served as centres of spirituality. He emphasized the need of physical yoga exercises as well as meditation.

In his magnum opus Dasabodha, Samarth Ramdasa combines his vast knowledge of various sciences and arts with the synthesizing principle of spiritual life. He is credited to have written several abhangas which deals with the ways to realize God.

Bloody Birth of Bangladesh

The emergence of Bangladesh as a sovereign country in 1971 is an important event in the world history. At the time of Indian independence in 1947 Bangladesh was a part of newly created nation of Pakistan. Since then, (it is still the case) Pakistan had been carrying their hate India campaign since its creation. It was nor ready (is still not ready) to understand that the future of India and Pakistan depends on peace and cooperation between these two countries.

Before its independence in 1971 Bangladesh was described as Eastern Pakistan. Due to the high handedness of the West Pakistan (present Pakistan) over the people of Eastern Pakistan, the situation came to such a pass that the people of the eastern Pakistan were in no mood to submit to the reckless dictates of the Western Pakistani authorities.

The first elections in Pakistan were held in 1970. The Awami League of eastern Pakistan, under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, got an absolute majority winning 160 out of 162 seats For East Pakistan in the National Assembly. However, the army Commander-in Chief, General Yahya Khan, who was ruling the country, refused to set up a representative government. As a result a civil disobedience movement led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was launched in eastern Pakistan. General Yahya Khan unleashed a reign of terror resulting in the killing of thousands of people. Many fled to India to escape the genocide. People of Eastern Pakistan took to guerilla warfare and liberation of Bangladesh became the battle cry .

Bangladesh Flag

On 28th March, 1971, the liberation army chief major Ziaudding Khan, announced the formation of Bangladesh Government. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was named the president. As the massacre of the people was carried by the western Pakistani armies, India could not afford to remain a silent spectator.

The make the matter worse, Pakistan declared war on India on 4th December. Pakistan was summarily defeated and India officially recognized Bangladesh as an independent country on 6th December. The combined forces of India and Bangladesh inflicted crushing defeat on the Pakistan armies. On 16th December Pakistani troops surrendered to Lt. General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the chief Commander of the Joint military command of India and Bangladesh.