Karikala Chola – The Victor in the Battle Of Venni

Grand Anicut / Image Credit

Cholas were one of the three major ruling dynasties of the Tamil Country during the Sangam period  (between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D.). They ruled over an area known as Tondaimandalam or Cholamandalam. The most celebrated ruler of the Sangam Cholas was Karikalan who made a grand anicut at Kaveri and laid the foundation of the capital of Kaveripattinam, also known as Puhar. Kaveripattinam, now a non-descript fishing village silted up by the river mud, had an artificial harbour which was built by prisoners of war who were obtained by him following his successful raid on Sri Lanka. Before Kaveripattinam, Uraiyur was the capital of the Chola kingdom.  

Karikalan' father was the son of Ilanjetcenni who was a valiant and brave ruler.

Karikalan, which means man with a charred leg, was so named because his leg was caught in flames when the prison, in which he was incarcerated after being kidnapped by his enemies, was set on fire. He, however, managed to escape alive. 

He defeated a confederacy of the Chera, Pandya and eleven kings in the Battle of Venni (modern Kovilvenni, 15 miles (24 km) to the east of Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu). The Chera king received a wound in the back and expiated the disgrace by starving himself to death on the battlefield with his sword in hand. Karikalan was an able ruler and great general. The Battle of Venni which took place in 190 AD, is referred to in many poems by different Tamil authors. 

In another battle fought at Vahaipparandalai, ‘the field of vahai trees’, Karikalan defeated nine minor enemy chieftains. 

Equipped with a powerful army, he made Chola a naval power very early in the historical period as gauged from his victory on the Sri Lankan kingdom. He is said to have founded Kaveripattinam or Puhar, the chief port of the ancient Chola kingdom.

Poets were rewarded profusely by Karikala who is said to have given the author of Pattinappalai 1,600,000 gold pieces.

The Great Sanchi Stupa: Crowning Achievement of Early North Indian Sculpture

46km from Bhopal in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh is situated the world famous Buddhist site of Sanchi the remains of which are among the finest relics of early Buddhism dating from 3nd century BC. The Great stupa at Sanchi is hailed as the crowning achievement of early north Indian sculpture.

Today the Great Sanchi Stupa survives to be awe-inspiring spectacles for the pilgrims and tourists who throng to them. It is a massive hemisphere of about 120 feet in diameter.  Towards the end of the 1st century BC four glorious gateways (torana) were added at the four cardinal points. The stupa was enlarged to twice its original size in the 2nd century AD. Lesser stupas and monastic buildings surround the great stupa. 

The Sanchi gateways, carved with great skill, are more remarkable for their carved ornamentation than their architecture. Carved with a several figures and reliefs, each gateway consists of two square columns, above which are three architraves supported by massive elephants or dwarfs, the whole reaching some 34 feet above ground level. The architraves are covered with panels depicting sense from the life of the Buddha and Jataka stories. The finish is remarkably good and the carvings are among the fresh and vigorous of the Indian sculpture. 

The Ashokan Pillar

Erected by the Greatest Maurayan emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC, the Ashokan pillar, located in the vicinity of the Southern gateway of the Great Stupa, is a fine specimen of the Indian architecture and art in ancient times.   

Samprati

Samprati

A grandson of 3rd Mauryan Emperor Ashoka,  Samprati (r. 224 – 215 BCE) was a Mauryan Emperor. He was the son of Kunala who was blind by birth. 

After Asoka's death in 232 BC, the territory of Mauryan empire was divided into the eastern and western parts. Sampriti and Dasaratha succeeded Asoka in the western and eastern parts respectively.

Samprati had embraced Jainism. He was converted to the religion by Jain monk Suhastin.

His contribution to Jainism is similar to that of Asoka to Buddhism. After a rule of nine years Samprati was followed by his son Salisuka who ruled for 13 years. 

Junagadh (Girnar) Inscription of Rudradaman

Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman / Image Credit

The Junagadh rock inscription of the Saka ruler Rudradaman is a eulogy inscribed on a rock located near Girnar hill near Junagadh in Gujarat. Composed in about 150 AD, the inscription,  which is the earliest inscription written in Sanskrit prose, refers to his reconstruction of a great dam or Sudarshan reservoir for irrigation which was excavated by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Chandragupta Maurya in the provinces of Anarta and Saurashtra (Gujarat). 

Written in the Brahmi script , this inscription is engraved on a rock which contains one of the fourteen Asokan Major Rock edicts and another inscription of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta. The inscription was first translated in 1837 by scholar and Orientalist James Prinsep, an official of the Calcutta Mint and secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

 

Military Conquests of Chandragupta Maurya

 

                              Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE / Wikimedia Commons

Ruling from 324 to 297 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the first and one of the greatest empires that appeared in Indian subcontinent. 

The scarcity of sources dealing with the military conquests of Chandragupta Maurya makes it difficult for us to ascertain whether he first overthrew Mahapadma Nanda, the unpopular last Nanda ruler, or drove out the Greeks from the North-West part of India.

From the inferences from the Jaina and Greek sources, it seems that liberation of Punjab was the first military activity by Chandragupta Maurya who felt emboldened by the confusion in the Greek empire that followed Macedonian ruler Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BC in Babylon. Greek writer Justin writes about the prevailing condition of the time, “India, after the death of Alexander, had shaken, as it were, the yoke of servitude from its neck and put his Governors to death. The architect of this liberation was Sandrocottus.”

Chandragupta Maurya is described as Sandrocottus in the Greek sources.

Chandragupta Maurya / Image Credit

After driving out the Greeks, Chandragupta turned his attention to the overthrow of the Nanda dynasty that was ruling Pataliputra at that time. Again, we are faced with the scarcity of accounts about this conquest. From the Jaina work Parisisthaparvan (12th-century Sanskrit work by Hemachandra, the court poet of the Chalukyas of Anhilwara) we come to know that Chankya, the able Brahmin advisor of Chandragupta, aided him in the conquest of Pataliputra by making him allying with a neighbouring king Parvataka. The combined armies of both the powers dealt the body-blow to the Nanda empire. According to the Buddhist text Milinda-panho which dates from sometime between 100 BC and 200 AD, Nanda army was led by its general Bhaddasala.

After the defeat of the Nanda power, Chandragupta declared himself the ruler of Magadha. He, however, again embarked on a policy of fresh military expeditions thereby bringing different parts of India under his suzerainty.

War with Seleucus I Nicator

A war with Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals, became inevitable for Chandragupta as the former after his master’s death became ruler of Babylon and tried to recover Alexander’s Indian provinces which had become part of the Mauryan empire.  However, Seleucus was defeated and entered into an alliance by ceding the Satrapies of Archosia (Kandahar) and the Paropanisade (Kabul), together with portions of Aria (Herat) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan). Under the terms of the alliance, the Mauryan emperor presented 500 elephants to the Greek general. According to Appian, the peace was concluded by a marriage alliance. However, the exact nature of this alliance is not known. Megasthenes was sent as ambassador to the Mauryan court to reside at Pataliputra.

Conquests of Western India and South

That western India was included in the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta can be ascertained from the Saka ruler Rudradaman I's Girnar Rock Inscription of about 150 AD which refers to his (Rudradaman I's ) reconstruction of a great dam and reservoir for irrigation which was excavated by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Chandragupta Maurya in the provinces of Anarta and Saurashtra (Gujarat).  

Chandragupta further extended his boundaries into the Konkan in Maharashtra where Asoka’s Rock Edict has been found at Sopara. Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, had excavated several edicts and inscriptions throughout the length and breadth of his kingdom. Since Bindusara, who was the son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya, is not known to have made any conquest and Asoka only conquered the Kalinga kingdom of Odisha, it can be said with certainty that Konkan was annexed to the Mauryan empire by Chandragupta.

Same can be said of Chandragupta’s expansion of his territories beyond the Vindhyas. The Rock Edicts II and XIII of Asoka state that the Mauryan empire shares its border with those of the southern kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras.

The Journey of Fa-hsien to India

A native of sanxi (Shansi), Fa-hsien, also known as Faxian, was a Chinese monk who came to India on a pilgrimage tour during the reign of Chandra Gupta II ((reigned c 376-415). His motive for coming to India was to acquire authentic copies of the Buddhist scriptures and to visit the places associated with the Buddha. After his return to China he translated into Chinese the large number of Sanskrit Buddhist texts he had brought from India.

He had recorded his observations in a travelogue titled Fo-Kwo-Ki (Travels of Fa-Hien).

Being of religious nature, he gives information about temples and monasteries and the state of Buddhism in India at that time. He was so engrossed in the religious pursuits that he even doesn’t mention the name of Chandra Gupta II (376-415) of the Gupta empire though he spent some six years in India during the latter’s reign. The Buddhist canon Samyutta Nikata was translated into Chinese about 440 AD from a manuscript obtained by the pilgrim in Sri Lanka in 411. Fa-hsien was the earliest to refer to “pollution on approach” in regard to the untouchables.  

Fa-hsien traveled in India, particularly the Buddhist centres, extensively. He visited Kapilvastu (Lumbini), Bodh Gaya in Bihar, Benares (Varanasi), Kushinagar and Shravasti, all linked to events in Buddha's life. His observations are of great importance to an understanding of the period.

In 411 AD he travelled from Tamralipti (modern West Bengal) to Sri Lanka

Some of the important statements made by Fa-hsien about India are:

• The country is prosperous and the people are happy
• India is a peaceful state and one can travel from one place to the other throughout the empire without being harassed. There is no need for passport. The administration is mild. Capital punishment is not in vogue. Offenders are generally punished by fines. Crimes of serious nature, which are rare, are punished by amputation of one hand.  
• People are vegetarians. Only people of low castes and untouchables ate meat. Respectable citizens don’t consume liquor.
• Free hospitals are run by donations of pious subjects of the kingdom.
• Buddhism is in a state of flourish and Kashmir, Punjab ad Afghanistan are centres of Buddhism.
• Untouchables don’t form part of the society. The dwell outside the confines of villages in segregated localities. Before entering the villages they had to strike a piece of wood to warn others of their approach.

A Short Note of Life of Vardhamana Mahavira

Lord Mahavira

Vardhamana, known to his followers as Mahavira, was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras (Ford-makers),  saviors and spiritual teachers of the dharma, in Jainism.  He is regarded as the founder of Jainism. 

A contemporary of The Buddha, Mahavira was born in village Kundandagrama near Vaishali in Bihar in a kshatriya (the warrior class) family about 599 BC. His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Jnatrikas clan and his mother Trishala was sister of Chetaka, the Licchavis king of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, who was married to Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka. Mahavira was married to Yashoda and had a daughter whose husband, Jamali, became the first disciple of Mahavira.

Though Mahavira was educated in all branches of knowledge he shied away from materialistic life. At the age of 30, when his parents were dead, he renounced his family, became an ascetic, and proceeded in search of truth. For over twelve years, he went from one place to another and led a life of torture by subjecting his body to all kinds of hardships but it was of no avail. During this period he met another ascetic, Gosala Maskariputra, who later founded the sect of Ajivikas. The Ajivika sect enjoyed its heydays during the Mauryan rule under Ashoka and his successor Dasharatha. It, however, survived until fourteenth century in south India.

In the thirteenth year of his asceticism on the tenth of Vaishakha, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama he found full enlightenment and Nirvana. From now onwards he was called Jaina or Jitendriya (one who has conquered his senses), Nirgranthas (“Free from Bonds”) and Mahavira (the brave) and his followers were named Jain. 

For the remaining thirty years Mahavira moved from one place to another in the Gangetic kingdoms and preached his religion. At the age of 72 he breathed his last at Pava, near the Magadhan capital Rajagrha in 527 BC. 

Women in Ancient India

Throughout most of ancient Indian history, the role of women was more or less confined to the home. Though there are instances where women wielded power and authority, this did not imply the common lot of the women in ancient India.

A woman was under the patriarchal authority of her parents, husband and sons. Even under Buddhism which boasted of liberal rules, a nun would be treated as subordinate to her male counterpart.

The status of women in ancient India kept on changing at different stages. During the Rig Vedic Period, women were treated equal to man.  During the Vedic period women participated in the public sacrifices alongside men. Some Vedic hymns are attributed to women. During this period, there were women rishis, and they were treated with respect and dignity.

However with the passage of time the status of women declined. 

Manu, one of the famous lawgivers of ancient India, declared that wife, like the slave, has no right to property. He dictated a woman would be dependent on her father in childhood, on her husband in youth and on her son in old age. However, some allowed a woman to own their special property (stridhana) in the form of jewellery and clothing.

In ancient Indian society a woman could find their role in religion, but could not serve the temples as priestess.

However in Vedic period the position of women was much more enhanced. Women seers are said to have composed some o the Vedic hymns. The famous discussion between Gargi and Yajnavalkya is well known. But by the beginning of the Christian era, women were declared ineligible for Vedic study. However, there are references to many references to literary works attributed to women poets and dramatists. In Tamil literature, the early poetess Avvaiyar composed works of high literary merit. Poruna-raatr-uppadai, which describes the victory of Karikala Chola in the battle at Venni near Thanjavur, has been attributed to a potter’s wife.

Sati in Ancient India 

The earliest  known Sati stone in India is an inscription engraved in A.D. 510 on a pillar found at Eran near Sagar in Madhya Pradesh. The Eran inscription mentions the wife of Goparaja, a vassal of Bhanugupta of the Gupta empire, burning herself on her husband's pyre.  The inscription mentions that his wife followed him on the pyre after his death in the battle against the Hunas.

The practice of sati was disapproved of by Bana, the court poet of Harsha (reigned from 606 to 647).

Buddhist Councils of Ancient India

After the Buddha's death, Buddhist councils were convened over the period of time to recite approved texts of scriptures and to settle doctrinal and disciplinary disputes. 

First Buddhist Council

Soon after the Buddha’s death in the fifth century BC the first Buddhist Council (sangiti) was held at Sattapanni cave near the Magadhan capital of Rajagriha (modern Rajgir, Bihar state of India). It was convened to compile the dhamma (religious doctrines) and the vinaya (monastic code). 

Rajagriha, which once served the capital of Bimbisara of Magadhan Empire, is sixty miles to the south-east of the modern Patna, the capital of Bihar. 

This council was held under the patronage of the king Ajatashatru with the monk Mahakasyapa, who presided over the assembly.

The council was participated in by five hundred monks. At the council, Upali, one of the Buddha’s chief disciples, recited the vinaya pitaka, or Rules of the Order, while another important disciple Ananada recited the sutta pitaka, the collection of the Buddha’s sermons on matters of doctrine and ethics.

Second Buddhist Council
A century later around 383 B.C. Vaishali in Bihar became the venue for the second Buddhist council which was convened to settle a serious dispute over the 'Ten Points’.  This is a reference to claims of some monks breaking ten rules. It is at Vaishali council where schism raised its head. Since either of the parties did not come to terms with each other, the council ended in a permanent schism of the Buddhist church into orthodox Sthaviravadins , or “Believers in the Teaching of the Elders” and Mahasanghikas or “Members of the Great Community”.

Third Buddhist Council
The third council was held at Patliputra (modern Patna, capital of Bihar ) under the patronage of Great Mauryan Emperor Asoka, 236 years after the death of Buddha. Presided over by the scholar monk Moggaliputra Tissa, the council was participated in by one thousand monks. The third Buddhist Council resulted in the expulsion of several heretics.

This council achieved a number of other important things. Moggaliputta Tissa, in order to keep heresies at bay and ensure the Dhamma was kept pure, composed a book called the Kathavatthu in which he disproved the wrong opinions and theories of a number of sects.

Fourth Buddhist Council
The fourth Council was held during the reign of Kanishka of Kushan Dynasty in Kashmir under the leadership of elder Vasumitra and the great scholar Asvaghosha. Here at this council Savastivadin doctrines were codified in a summary, the Mahavibhasa ("Great Exegesis"). The convening of this council led to the division into two broad sects, namely the Mahayana (great Vehicle ) and the Hinayana (lesser Vehicle). According to Buddhist tradition, another fourth Buddhist council was also held at Tambapanni at Alu Vihara in Sri Lanka in 29 B.C. under the patronage of King Vattagamani Abhaya (29–17 bc).  

History of the Western Chalukya Empire

Brahma Jinalaya Temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka / Image Credit

Karka II, the last ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga (modern Kalaburagi) district in Karnataka), was overthrown in AD 974 by Tailapa or Taila II, who started a new line of Chalukyas known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani  (modern day Basavakalyan in the present Bidar district of Karnataka). 

Chalukyas of Kalyani, also known as Western Chalukya dynasty, produced some of the greatest rulers though the genealogy of the rulers of the dynasty is still in the realm of debate.

The kingdom established by Tailapa is known as Later Chalukya or the Chalukyas of Kalyani (The earlier Chalukyas being the Chalukyas of Badami). There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami or Vatapi (also known as early western Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Vengi (also known as eastern Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

Western-Chalukya-Empire / Image Source

Tailapa’s reign lasted for twenty-three years from AD 974 to 997. His rule is marked by extensive conquests. He came into conflict with the Gangas. After defeating Panchaladeva of Ganga dynasty, he captured North Mysore. He fought a prolonged battle with the Paramaras of Malwa and eventually after inflicting a crushing defeat on the Parmara Munja, took him prisoner and the later died in captivity. His reign also saw the beginning of a long drawn phase of wars against the Cholas of Thanjavur, attacking Uttama Chola. The Chalukya-Chola struggle became a regular feature during the rule of his successors. 

Tailapa is known for patronising Kannada poet Ranna, one of three gems of Kannada literature. The 10th century work, Gadhayuddham (The Duel of Maces) is Ranna's magnum opus. 

Tailapa was succeeded by his son and successor Satyasraya, also known as Sollina or Solliga, who continued the aggressive policies of his father. Satyasraya, had to face two Chola invasions led by the mighty Rajendra Chola. The Chola armies plundered the entire Chalukyan territory, Captured Banavasi, the seat of power of the Kadambas and large parts of Raichur Doab, and sacked the Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta. Another Chola army moved towards Vengi and forced Satyasraya to withdraw his forces from Vengi.

After Satyasraya’s death in 1008, his nephew Vikramaditya V ascended the throne. During his reign, nothing of consequence took place. He was succeeded by his brother Jayasimha II in AD 1015. Jayasimha II (1015-1042) has to face the adversaries on several fronts. He had to face wrath of the Parmara Bhoja of Malwa, wanting to avenge the fate of Munja. The Chalukyan kingdom was invaded by Bhoja (1018-1055) who captured Lata (Gujarat) and parts of Konkan. But it was the Rajendra Chola who proved to be his most formidable foe. After many successive defeats of the Chalukyan forces, the Tungabhadra River became the tacit boundary between the two empires. Akkadevi, sister of Jayasimha II, is famed in the history for fighting battles and superintending sieges.

Jayasimha II was succeeded by Someshvara I Ahavamalla (c1042-1068). He shifted his capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani, embellishing the new capital with many beautiful buildings. During the last years of his reign when his power began to decline, he drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River at Kuruvatti.

The continuous wars with the Cholas dent a blow to the Chalukyas resources and resulted in the weakening of the empire. The last notable Chalukya ruler was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126) who is famous for introducing the Chalukya –Vikram era in place of Shaka era. In 1085, his armies advanced towards Kanchi and captured some Chola territories in Andhra. He fought many battles against the Hoyasalas of Dwarasamundra, the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Kadambas of Goa, who were the feudatories of the Chalukyas. But in spite of having defeated them, he could not finally suppress their power and within three decades of his death, most of the leading Chalukyan feudatories asserted their independence.

Apart from his chivalrous exploits, Vikramaditya VI was also famous for patronizing men of letters. Kashmiri poet Bilhana, the author of the Vikaramankadevacharya, and Vijnaneshvara, the commentator of the Mitakshara commentary on the Smritis, adorned his court. He was the hero of Vikramankadevacharita and is said to have obtained brides by svayamvaras, or “self choice’.

After the death of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyas had to face repeated rebellions of their vassals, who soon asserted their independence. By the middle of the twelfth century, the Chalukyan kingdom of Kalyani became almost a shadow of itself and the kingdom was divided into the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (present day Halebidu in Hassan District of Karnataka) and the Yadavas of Devagiri.

Western Chalukya Temples

Kasivisvesvara Temple, Jain temple of Brahma Jinalaya and Nannesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district in Karnataka are the famed Western Chalukya Temples.  

Chalukya Shiva temple or Lad Khan temple

Lad Khan Temple Aihole / Image Credit

A small riverbank village in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka,  Aihole was in ancient times a centre of kingdom of early Chalukyas of Vatapi (now called Badami) who were prolific temple builders. 

Aihole is a town of temples and contains more than hundred structures.

Dating back to the 5th century AD. Lad Khan is the oldest temple in Aihole. Dedicated to Shiva, the temple is a specimen of of the Malaprabha style of architecture. Lad Khan Temple owns its name to a commander of the Bijapur Sultanate who once stayed there.

Nandi facing the shivalinga  / Image Credit 

Mallikarjuna Temple, Pattadakal

Mallikarjuna_Temple,_Pattadakal / Image Credit

Mallikarjuna Temple or Trilokeshwara Temple  is a temple in Pattadakal built by the Badami Chalukyas in the eighth century. Built by Trilokadevi, wife of the Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya II (reigned 733 - 744 AD),   the temple was built immediately after the Virupaksha Temple, which was built by Lokamahadevi, another wife of the Chalukya ruler., in 745 AD. 

Located on the Malaprabha river in Karnataka, Pattadakal is believed to be the site where Chalukyan rulers were crowned kings between the sixth and eighth centuries.

Trilokeshwara Temple bears a resemblance to Virupaksha Temple.  The temple has beautiful pillars and columns narrating scenes from mythology, legends, puranas and Ramayana and Mahabharata. There is a Nandi pavilion in the temple. 

Trilokeshwara Temple is part of the monuments in Pattadakal and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal

Virupaksha Temple / Image Credit

Virupaksha is the largest and grandest of all temples built by the Badami Chalukyas in Pattadakal between the 7th AD and 9th AD centuries. Located on the Malaprabha river in Karnataka, Pattadakal is believed to be the site where Chalukyan rulers were crowned kings. 

Also known as the Lokeshwara temple, the Virupaksha temple was commissioned in 745 AD by the Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya's consort Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas of Kanchi,  The architect of the temple was Sri Gundan Anivaritachari who was given the title of Tenkanadiseyasutradhari (the architect of the South). 

Dedicated to Shiva, the Virupaksha temple is influenced by the architecture of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. The concept and design of the Virupaksha temple later served as a model for the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I (757 -783 A.D.) to carve out the great Kailasha Temple at Ellora.

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  Nandi Facing The Shiva Lingman at Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal 

Ajita Kesakambali, One of the Six Heretics

Six Heretical Teachers / Image Credit 

A contemporary of the Buddha in the 6th century BC, Ajita Kesakambalin (“Ajita of the Hair-blanket)  is one of the Six Heretical Teachers who were opposed to his teachings. The other five were Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Pakudha Kaccāyana, Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta). 

According to Buddhism, Ajita Kesakambalin was a heretic whose beliefs were challenged and refuted by the Buddha who is said to have performed feats of levitation and other miracles (known as the Twin Miracle) due to challenge from these rivals. 

Ajita Kesakambalin is the earliest known proponent of complete materialism. He taught that pleasure is the chief end of life. According to him, “When the body dies both fool and wise alike are cut-off and perish. They don’t survive after death.”

According to Buddhist sources, Ajita founded a sect of monks. He is depicted as an ascetic dressed in human hair. Hence the name 'Ajita Kesakambalin'

It is not possible to pinpoint the exact influence of the tenets of Charvaka or Lokayata, as the materialist schools were called. However, they have been condemned in no uncertain terms in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina literature of the period. 

Sometimes these references contain an undertone of fear. This goes to show that Ajita was certainly one of the chief rivals to these sects for the allegiance of the adherents of this period.

 

Pragbodhi: Site of Buddha’s Meditation

View of the Dhungeswara_Hills / Image Credit

After renouncing his home life the event known as “Great Going Forth” (Mahabhiniskramana) in the Buddhist phraseology, Siddhartha Gautama began to lead a life of mendicancy, asceticism, and meditation. 

Approach Road To Dhungeswara Hills / Image Credit

Siddhartha learnt the technique of ecstatic mediation (samapatti) from a sage named Alara Kalama (first teacher of Gautama Buddha). 

During the period he practised most rigorous self-mortification. For six years, he tortured himself and his penances were so severe until he was nothing but a walking skeleton. 

One day, Siddhartha realized the futility of fasts and penances and began to beg food. Sujata, the daughter of a farmer, brought him a large bowl of rice boiled in milk.  After forty nine days, he became Enlightened- a Buddha at Bodh Gaya.  

12 Km from Bodh Gaya in the district of Gaya is located Pragbodhi hill where the Buddha had penanced in a cave for six years before he went to Bodh Gaya to gain Enlightenment. Pragbodhi, meaning ‘Prior to Enlightenment’, is now known as Dhungeswara hill. 

Emaciated Buddha Statue Dungeshwari Cave / Image Credit 

In the cave there is a gold covered image which portrays an emaciated look of Buddha due to fasts and penances. 

There are Buddhist stupas in the hills. The Chinese traveller and monk Chinese scholar and traveler Huen Tsang  who visited these stupas in the seventh century has referred to their  dedication by the Mauryan emperor Asoka to mark the footsteps of Siddhartha Gautama.  

Pragbodhi Buddha Cave / Image Credit

Centuries of neglect, these stūpas are in a deplorable condition and need protection and conservation.

Battle of Thirupurambiyam

Chola ruler Aditya I was the son of Vijayalaya who was a feudatory of the Pallava rulers. 

In 879 CE Aditya I joined a confederacy of Pallavas and Western Gangas to defeat the Pandyan ruler Varagunavarman II in the Battle of Sri Purambiyam or Thirupurambiyam  near Kumbakonam in the  Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. 

Varagunavarman II lost the battle though Western Ganga king Prithvipati I lost his life in the battle. The confederacy was led by the Pallava king Aparajita. 

Prithivipati I was buried in a pallipadai temple in the village of Thirupurambiyam. 

Not satisfied with remaining subordinate to the Pallava power, Aditya I now embarked on a campaign to altogether extinguish the Pallava power and killed its last ruler Aparajita in c. 897 CE, bringing the Pallava territory under the Chola dominions. 

Pulkesin II (Reigned 610-642), Greatest of The Chalukyas of Badami

Pulakesin II court  / Image Credit

Son of Kirtivarman, Pulkesin II is the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Badami. Since Pulkesin II was too young to ascend the throne at the time of Kirtivarman’s death in 597-98, Mangalesa, brother of Kirtivarman, became the regent of the empire. However, when Pulkesin II came of age, Mangalesa refused to surrender the throne and tried to secure the throne for his own son. So there ensued a battle between Mangalesa and Pulkesin II who killed the former and proclaimed himself king in 609-10. 

Aihole Prasasti (Inscription), composed by Pulkesin II‘s court poet Ravikirti, gives a detailed account of his victories. He was a contemporary of North Indian emperor Harsha (Vardhana dynasty) whom he had defeated on the banks of the Narmada river in 618 AD- the only check in the northern ruler’s otherwise victorious career. Pulkesin II subjugated the Latas (Gujarat), Malavas and Gurjaras.  

Pulkesin II considerably extended the bounds of his realm. Leaving his younger brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana in charge of the capital he embarked on an extensive campaign of conquest of Southern Kosala, Kalinga in the eastern Deccan. (Vishnuvardhana was the founder of a separate dynasty known as Eastern Chalukya, also known as the Chalukyas of Vengi.) 

Pulkesin II subjugated Kadamabas by overthrowing their capital Banavasi and compelled Alupas of Southern Karnataka and the Gangas of Mysore to acknowledge his suzerainty. Mauryas of northern Konkan were also compelled to submission when he successfully attacked their capital Puri (on the island of Elephanta). 

During his reign the Battle of Pullalur was fought with the Pallava king Mahendravarman I who was defeated. The battle took place at Pullalur (now in the Kanchipuram district in Tamil Nadu) in about 618–19. This was the beginning of the long-drawn-out struggle between the Pallavas and their sworn enemies the Chalukyas. In 640 AD the battle of Maanimangala was fought between Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I and Pulakesin II who suffered defeat. The Battle of Vatapi took place in 642 AD between Narasimhavarman I and Pulakesin II near Vatapi.  After the battle which resulted in the defeat and death of Pulakeshin II, Narasimhavarman I took the title of Vatapikonda (Conqueror of Vatapi).

These were the days of crisis for Chalukyan kingdom. The feudatories began to declare independence and the matter was made worse by the dissensions among the sons of the Pulkeshin II. 

 

Efficient Drainage System Of Indus Valley Civilization

 

Drainage System at Lothal / Image Credit

One of the most striking features of Harappan civilization, also known as Indus valley civilization, is its elaborate drainage system which was a product of careful thought and planning. Furnished with sophisticated sewage system, the main streets of the cities of the Indus valley civilization had sewers below them. The bathrooms of the houses flowed into sewers leading to the soak pits. The drains were covered with large slabs of bricks and stones. However, one defect of the drains during the period was that they were located near the wells.

This unique drainage system of the Indus people indicates the existence of a highly organized municipal organization without which it would not have been possible to maintain such an efficient system of drains.

It can be safely said that no other ancient civilization can come close to the Harappan culture when it comes to drainage system.

The efficient sewage system characteristic feature of the Indus Valley Civilisation site of Lothal in Gujarat underscores the importance of cleanliness accorded by the Harappan people. 

Chennakeshava Temple of Aralaguppe

Chennakeshava temple of Aralaguppe / Image Credit

Dedicated to Vishnu, the Chennakeshava temple of Aralaguppe is a Hoysala era shrine.  Located at the small town of Aralaguppe in the Tumkur district of Karnataka, the temple is located 60 km from the Hassan city. It was built in the middle of the 13th century by the Hoysala ruler Vira Someshwara (1235–1263 CE). 

Dedicated to Vishnu, the Chennakeshava temple of Aralaguppe is a Hoysala era shrine.  Located at the small town of Aralaguppe in the Tumkur district of Karnataka, the temple is located 60 km from the Hassan city. It was built in the middle of the 13th century by the Hoysala ruler Vira Someshwara (1235–1263 CE). 

Jain Ruler Kharavela: Imperialist To The Core

Hathigumpha Inscription / Image Credit

In the latter half of the first century B.C., Kalinga ruler Kharavela professed Jainism and became its great patron. It is interesting to note that though Kharavela had embraced Jainism, which stresses on non-violence, he was an imperialist to the core and entered in sanguinary conflicts with his adversaries all over India. 

Kharavela is credited with setting up several images and his chief queen granted a rock-cut cave to the Jain monks.

The Hathigumpha Inscription  of Kharvela 

The Hathigumpha Inscription in a cavern called Hathigumpha in Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar in Odisha was inscribed by Kharavela . This inscription is the main source of information about Kharavela. 

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