Zia Nakhshabi

Zia Nakhshabi (d.1350) was a famous Sufi saint and scholar during the reign of Tughlaq Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He is credited with translating Chintamani Bhatta’s Sanskrit work Suka-saptati (Parrot’s Seventy) into Persian. The text translated by him is known as Tutinama (Stories from a Parrot) which was in time translated into Turkish and other European languages.

Zia Nakhshabi had also translated Koka-shastra (also known as Rati-rahasyam: Mysteries of Passion), a popular early medieval Sanskrit work on erotica written by Kukkoka (Kokapandita).

 

Muizuddin Bahram, Sultan of the Mamluk Dynasty

Muiz-ud-din Bahram, Iltutmish’s third son, was raised to the throne of Delhi Sultanate in 1240 by the aristocratic Turkish nobles who put the then reigning ruler Raziya Sultana into prison in the Bhatinda fort, north-western India. Razia tried to retrieve the situation by marrying her captor Altuniya, the governor of Bhatinda. However, both were defeated by the Delhi forces.   

Muizuddin Bahram was a savage and bloodthirsty ruler. He was, according to medieval historian  Minhaj-us-Siraj, ‘a fearless, intrepid and sanguinary man’. 

During his reign in 1241 the Mongols reached the gates of Lahore and sacked the city. 

As part of the agreement under which Muizuddin Bahram was raised to the throne by the nobles, he designated Aitigin as Naib-i-Mamlikat, regent of the kingdom and assigned the highest executive power of the state to him. Naib-i-Mamlikat was intended to be the de facto ruler., the Sultan merely a figurehead.  

However, if the nobles expected Muizuddin Bahram to be a puppet in their hands, they were living in fool’s paradise. He executed  Aitigin who had offended him by marrying one of his sisters. The nobles became terrified and got him killed in May 1242 A.D. Ala-ud-din Masud Shah, son of Rukn ud-Din Firuz, was raised to the throne by the nobles.

Yahaya bin Ahmed Sirhindi and his Tarikh- i- Mubarak Shahi

Yahiya bin Ahmad bin Abdullah Sarhindi was a contemporary of Mubarak Shah (reigned 1421- 1434 ) and Muhammad Shah (reigned 1434-45), the rulers of the Saiyid dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. It was during Mubarak Shah’s reign that he composed his Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, dedicated to the Sayyid ruler. 

Written in Persian, Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi begins with the reign of Muizzuddin Muhammad of Ghor and ends at 1434 with the accession of Sultan Muhammad Shah, the third Saiyid ruler. 

Alai Darwaza (Gateway of Alauddin)

Alai Darwaza (Gateway of Alauddin) was built in 1311 by Alauddin Khalji, the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty, the second in the line of five dynasties that comprised the Delhi Sultanate. It is the southern gateway to the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi. 

The material used in the construction of Alai Darwaza  is red sandstone and white marble, with inlays of black marble and blue schist.

Turkan-i-Chahalgani, the Group of Forty

Amir-i-Chahalgani, known variously as Turkan-i-Chahalgani and Chalisa (The Forty), was a group of 40 faithful slaves which came into existence with the task of protecting Shamsuddin Iltutmish, the third Slave Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. The idea to form the group was taken by him when he came to realize that Turkish nobles cannot be trusted and could be a threat to his rule.

With the passage of time the group went on to become very influential and powerful. Though Iltutmish succeeded in keeping the group under control, after his rule they became notorious and intrigued against nearly all his successors. 

The Forty acquired domination on the affairs of the state so much so that no ruler could defy them. Without their support it was utterly out of questions for the rulers to win the battle for succession. The members of this Turkish nobility used to appropriate all the offices of the state to themselves. Some of the rulers of the Slave dynasty after Iltutmish were murdered by these slaves.

Intrigues, counter intrigues and greed for wealth reigned supreme among the members of the Forty. 

Balban, who had been an active member of the Forty before his accession to the throne, was fully aware of its real strengths as well as its sense of loyalty to the family of Iltutmish. He carefully made a plan to guard against the intrigues and conspiracies of the members of the Forty. He started to eliminate them one by one, giving a death blow to the Turkish nobility to which he once himself belonged.

 

Aram Shah (2010-2011): Second Slave Ruler of Delhi Sultanate

After his death at Lahore in early November in 1210, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the founder of the Slave (Mamluk) dynasty, was succeeded by Aram Bakhsh who ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate under the title of Sultan Aram Shah. The exact nature of relationship of Aram Bakhsh with Qutb-ud-din is not known. According to one school of thought, he was his son. However, contemporary historian Minhaj –us-Siraj makes no mention of Qutb-ud-din’s son and says that he had only three daughters. According to Abul Fazal, court historian of Mughal Emperor Akbar, Aram Shah was Qutb-ud-din’s brother. 

Sultan Aram Shah proved to be an inexperienced and incapable ruler. The nobles and amirs invited Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s son-in-law Iltutmish, then governor of Badaun, who defeated Aram Shah in the plains of Jud near Delhi. Thus ended the eight month rule of Aram Shah who was not heard of afterwards.  

Amir Khusrau: Sufi Mystic and Poet

Yaminuddin Abul Hasan Ameer Khusro or Amir Khusrau, as he is popularly known in the Indian sub-continent, is a great name in literature and music. Born in 1252 in a Turkish family at Patiyali in the Kasganj district of Uttar Pradesh, Amir Khusrau was a man of culture who was witness to the reigns of six Sultans of Delhi Sultanate spanning different dynasties: Slave, Khilji and Tughlaq.  

Amir Khusrau mixed spiritual and mundane with ease. One the one hand, he has a liking for mysticism and became a disciple of the famous Sufi Chisti saint Nizamuddin Auliya, on the other, he used to accompany the Sultanate army in their military expeditions. He was captured by the Mongols during the fight which claimed the life of Prince Muhammad, son of Slave Sultan Balban, in 1286. However, he managed to escape.  

An academic genius, Amir Khusrau was a prolific writer. 

Composed in 1289, Qiran-us-sadin is the first historical masnavi of Amir Khusrau. Written in verse, it describes the meeting between Kaiqubad, the Sultan of Delhi, and his father Bughra Khan, the governor of Bengal and son of Balban. 

His Khazain ul Futuh, also known as Tarikh-i-Alai, deals with the first fifteen years of the reign of 'Ala-ud-din Khalji.

Nuh Siphr (the nine skies), another historical  masnavi described the reign of Mubarak Khilji.

In 1291 Amir Khusrau wrote Miftah-ul-Futh where he deals with the military campaigns of Jalaluddin khilji, the founder of the Khilji dynasty. It contains the account of the suppression of the rebellion by Malik Chajju.

Bahlul Khan Lodi: Founder of Lodi Dynasty

Bahlul (also written as Buhlol, Bahlol and Buhlul) Khan Lodi was the founder of the Lodi dynasty, the last of the five dynasties, the combination of which is known as Delhi sultanate. The Lodis, who were Afghan by race, ruled for seventy five years from 1451-1526 till their last ruler Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed by Babur in the First battle of Panipat in 1526 resulting in the establishment of Mughal empire in India.

Buhlul Lodi ruled for long thirty-nine years (1451-89). He was the governor of Lahore and Sirhind during the rule of Muhammad Shah of Sayyid dynasty. In 1451, Buhlul was given the throne of Delhi on a platter by Muhammad’s son Ala-ud-din Alam Shah, the last of the Sayyids. 

During Buhlul’s reign, Mahmud Shah of the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur tried to capture Delhi. He, however, failed in his attempt. Buhul compelled Ahmad Khan of Mewat, lsa Khan of Koil, Dariya Khan of Sambhal, Raja Pratap Singh of Mainpuri and Bhongaon, Mubarak Khan of Suket, Qutb Khan of Rewari, and the chiefs of Etawah, Chandwar and other districts of the Doab, to owe their allegiance to him. These chieftains were, however, not treated with iron hand by Buhul. As a result they readily submitted to the rule of Delhi Sultanate.

Buhlul’s biggest achievement was the conquest of the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur which was annexed into the Delhi Sultanate. His eldest surviving son Barbak Shah, was appointed governor of Jaunpur in 1486.

Buhlul Lodi died in l489, near the town of Jalali. His tomb is located adjacent to the shrine of the famous Sufi saint, Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Delhi, in Chirag Delhi area of South Delhi.

Kaiqubad (1287-90), Last Ruler of the Slave Dynasty

Before his death in 1287, Balban had nominated his grandson Kai Khusrav as his successor after his son Bughra Khan declined the offer. Kai Khusrav was the son of Muhammad (another son of Balban), who was killed in the fight with Mongols in 1285. But disregarding Balban’s wish, the nobles of the Slave dynasty placed Kaiqubad (Qaiqabad), son of Bughra Khan, on the throne.

Kaiqubad, brought up under the watchful eyes of Balban, himself a strict disciplinarian, was seventeen when he became Sultan. He soon plunged himself into debauchery. Real power of the kingdom came into the hands of Nizam-ud-din, son-in-law of Fakhr-ud-din, the Kotwal of Delhi. Confusion and chaos reigned supreme. Nizam-ud-din was poisoned by Kaiqubad when the former hesitated to obey the latter's diktat to transfer Nizam-ud-din to Multan. Matters were made worse by the struggle for supremacy between the nobles of the Turkish party and those belonging to the Khalji party.

Excess of wine and pleasure made Kaiqubad physically challenged. He was murdered in his palace of mirrors at Kilokhri by a Khalji noble whose father had been done to death on Sultan’s orders. Respect for sultan had reached to such a low that his corpse was thrown into the Jumna river. The Khalji nobles, under the leadership of Malik Jalal-ud-din Firuz, stamped their authority in the ongoing struggle. After killing Kayumars, an infant son of Kaiqubad, MalikJalal-ud-din Firuz ascended the Delhi Sultanate throne on the 13th June, 1290 at an age of seventy and the dynasty he founded came to be known as Khilji dynasty.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty

Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, a grandson of Iltutmish, was one of the sultans of the Slave Dynasty. He was placed on the throne of Delhi Sultanate by the nobles in 1246 after the incompetent reigns of his predecessors Muiz-ud-din Bahram (1240-42) and Ala-ud-din Masud Shah (1242-46).

Nasir-ud-din Mahmud was only sixteen when he ascended the throne. During his twenty year rule, he remained content in surrendering the power of the state to Balban, one of his Turkish minister.

In 1249, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud married the daughter of Balban. This increased the power of Balban who was made his deputy (naib-i-mamalakat) and given the title of Ulugh Khan (premier ‘Khan’).

Balban, de facto ruler of Delhi, managed the affairs of the sate competently. Internal rebellions were suppressed. Mongol invasions were successfully repulsed. This aroused the jealousy of the other nobles. This led to his exile from 1253 to 1255. But as they created a mess of the administration, he was once again recalled by the Sultan. 
 

Nothing can be said with certainty about the last years of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud who died on in 1266. If the accounts of the fourteenth century historian Isami and African traveler Ibn Batutah are to be believed, the Salve Sultan was murdered by Balban. Since Nasir-ud-din Mahmud had no male heir behind him, Balban ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate. According to some authorities, the Sultan had nominated him as his successor before his death.

 

An intensely religious-minded person, Nasir-ud-din spent his leisure times in copying the Quran. Himself an expert calligraphist, he patronized Minhaj-us-Siraj who wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri and dedicated it to the Sultan.

 

 

Mubarak Shah: The Second Ruler of the Sayyid Dynasty

                                        Mubarak Shah's tomb / Image Credit

After the death of his father Khizr Khan, the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, Mubarak Shah ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate. Mubarak Shah, who was nominated as the successor by his father, became the sovereign ruler of Delhi on the very day of the latter's death (20th May, 1421). Unlike his father, he assumed royal title.

It was during Mubarak Shah’s reign that Yahiya bin Ahmad Sarhindi composed his Ta'rikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, dedicated to the Sayyid ruler. Like that of his father, his reign is also not marked by any important event. He suppressed the rebellions at Bhatinda and in the Doab. Khokars under Jasrat tired to pose challenge to the authority of Delhi Sultanate. Mubarak’s reign saw the ascendancy of the Hindu nobles in the court.

Mubarak Shah fell prey to a conspiracy hatched by the Delhi nobles, both Muslims and Hindus, under the leadership of the disgruntled and unscrupulous wazir Sarvar-ul-mulk, He was murdered on the 19th February, 1434, when he was on his way to monitor the construction of Mubarakabad, a newly planned city by the Sayyid ruler on the banks of the Jamuna river. 

Mubarak Shah lies buried in a tomb in Delhi at Kotla Mubarakpur, named after him. He was succeeded on the throne by Muhammad Shah.

Did Muhammad bin Tughluq kill Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq?

Did Muhammad bin Tughluq launch his career as a ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty by arranging the murder of his own father, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the founder of the dynasty?

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, died in 1325 AD from the collapse of a wooden pavilion which his son Jauna, better known as Muhammad bin Tughluq, had got built by the royal architect (Mir ‘Imard) Ahmad, son of Ayaz. The wooden structure was built at Afghanpur to welcome Sultan after his successful military campaign in Bengal. Afghanpur was located some six miles from Tughluqabad (located on Mehrauli Badarapur Road in Delhi), the fortress-city founded by Ghiyas-ud-din.



Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq's Tomb

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was buried in the tomb which he had built for himself at Tughlaqabad. There are two schools of thought about the Sulltan’s death. While one has accused Muhammad bin Tughlaq of patricide, other has attributed the death to divine intervention. While African traveler Ibn Batutah holds Jauna responsible for pre-planning the accident to kill the Sultan, Ziauddin Barni attributes the crash of the pavilion to lightning striking it. According to Yayiha bin Ahmad Sarhindi, author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, ‘divine preordination’ was responsible for the collapse of the structure.

However, the account of Ibn Batutah seems to be right. His informant, Shaikh Rukn-ud-din, was in the pavilion when it crashed. There is no reason to believe Batutah’s intentional denigration of Muhammad bin Tughlaq because the African traveler was well received by the latter during whose rule he came to India in 1333 AD. Later historians like Abul Fazl, Nizam –ud din Ahmad and Badauni also concur with the views of Ibn Batutah.

Barni’s account seems to be biased. This is obvious because he authored his work 'Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi' during the reign of Firuz Tughlaq who had a great regard for his predecessor Muhammad bin Tughlaq and as such Barni didn't want to displease Firuz.

Iltutmish: the Real Founder of Delhi Sultanate

Shamsuddin Iltutmish, born in a tribal community of Ilbari in Turkestan, was the real founder of the Slave Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, though he was technically the third ruler of the dynasty. At the time of Qutab-ud-din’s death in 1210 AD, he was the governor of Badaun. After the death of Qutub-Ud-Din Aibak (founder of Slave Dynasty), the Chihalgani (Group of Forty) put Aram Shah as the next ruler. The relation of Aram to Qutub-Ud-Din is in the realm of debate. Aram Shah turned out to be an inept ruler. Iltutmish or (Altmash) was invited by the nobles of delhi to replace Aram who was defeated in the plain of Jud near Delhi. An intelligent and wise person Iltutmish made Delhi the capital of Delhi Sultanate.

The first ten years of Iltutmish’s reign was devoted to consolidating his position which was challenged by his rivals-particularly Tajuddin Yalduz (successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni) and Nasiruddin Qubacha (the Governor of Uch and Multan). Iltutmish defeated both of them in 1216-17, and thus made his position secure.

The reign of Iltutmish saw the coming of the Mongol fury in Central Asia under the leadership of Chengiz Khan, the Mongolian ruler, who had occupied Peking in 1215 and conquered Transoxiana in 1220. Iltutmish must be credited for his diplomatic skill. He saved the nascent kingdom of Slave Dynasty from the menace of the Mongol invasion. The fear of Chengiz khan was such that Iltutmish did not embark on any military expedition till the death the death of Chengiz khan in 1227.

After the Mongol threat subsided, Iltutmish recaptured Multan and Bengal in 1227-28 and became successful in reasserting his authority in Bengal and Bihar in 1229, and captured Ranthambhor and Mandor in Rajasthan. In 1229, he received a deed of investiture from the Abassid Caliph of Baghdad, becoming the first Sultan of Delhi to secure this recognition. The event marked the formal recognition of Iltutmish's independent position as a Sultan as also of the Delhi Sultanate and as a member of the world fraternity of Islamic states. The Turkish rulers sought to secure recognition from the Caliph. The recognition from Calipah was instrumental in legalizing their rule among the orthodox and this also enhanced their prestige as Sultans.  

Iltutmish was the first Sultan of Delhi who issued regular currency and declared Delhi as the capital of his empire.

Iltutmish had a group of faithful slaves to protect him. This group which included 40 Turkish and non-Turkish nobles, was known as Chalisa  or Amir-i-Chahalgani (mentioned at the outset), or The Forty. This group was later liquidated by Balban.

Razia, the Only Muslim Woman Ruler of India

Razia (AD 1236-40) was the first and last Muslim woman ruler of Delhi. After the death of her father Sultan Iltutmish (the second ruler of the Slave dynasty of Delhi Sultanate) in 1236, her half brother Rukn-ud-din Firuz ascended the throne with the help of the nobles. This was against the wishes of Iltutmish or Altamash who was aware that his sons were not fit to be the ruler. 

During the rule of Rukn-ud-din Firuz the empire plunged into disorder. Matters were made worse by her mother Shah Turkan who unveiled a reign of terror on her adversaries. Initially a concubine in the harem of Iltutmish, Shah Turkan later on went on to become queen of the Sultan. As chaos and confusion loomed large, Rukn-ud-din Firuz and his mother Shah Turkan were put to death on November 9, 1936. He ruled for only seven months.

Razia was now the natural choice of the nobles of Delhi. Razia’s rule lasted three years ad half. She gave good account of herself as a shrewd diplomat and a strategist. At the beginning of her rule, she quelled the rebellion of provincial governors led by Muhammad Junaidi, the prime minster of the empire. She became successful in restring order in the kingdom. This was not an easy task given the conservative nature of the Muslim society in medieval times.

Razia discarded veil, began to don male attire, and rode out in public on the back of an elephant. This was not liked by the orthodox section of the Muslim populace. Another serious complaint against her that she showed undue favour to Jallaluddin Yakut, an Abyssinian by promoting him to the post of Master of Stables.

Soon discontent began to emerge among the governors of the Kingdom. Kabir khan, the governor of Lahore, was defeated by Razia. However she suffered defeat at the hands of the governor of Bhatinda, Altunia who later married her after her defeat. While she was away in Bhatinda, the nobles at Delhi proclaimed Bahram Shah, another son of Iltutmish, Sultan of Delhi. Razia was defeated in 1240 and was killed.

The contemporary historian Minhaj-us-Siraj describes Razia as “a great sovereign endowed with all the admirable qualities and qualifications necessary for kings."