Jean Baptiste Tavernier

Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605–1689) was a French traveller and a merchant in gems who made six voyages to India between 1630 and 1668 during the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Being a dealer of diamonds made him well equipped to elaborately discuss about diamonds and diamond mines of India. 

His travel account, entitled Travel in India, first appeared in 1676. His another book Le Six Voyages de J. B. Tavernier- The Six Voyages of J. B. Tavernier was also published in 1676, and translated into English by Dr. C. V. Ball in 1889. 

The gem-studded Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taoos), commissioned by Shah Jahan and housed in the Diwan-i-Khas in the Red Fort of Delhi, was described by Tavernier as “the richest and most superb throne which has ever been seen in the world.” The Peacock Throne was taken to Persia by Nadir Shah who invaded India during the reign of Raushan Akhtar who ascended the Mughal throne under the title of Muhammad Shah in 1719. 

Tavernier died in Moscow in 1689, at the age of eighty-four. 

Bughra Khan

Bughra Khan was the second son of Balban of the Slave dynasty of rthe Delhi Sultante. During his father's reign, Bughra Khan was placed in charge of the territories of Samana and Sunam. He and his elder brother Muhammad Khan were successfully to keep the Mongols at bay but in A.D. 1285 Muhammad was killed during his fight against the Mongols. 

When Balban proceeded towards Bengal in 1281 to crush the rebellion of Tughral Tughan Khan (Governor of Bengal) he took Bughra Khan with him. The rebellion was suppressed and Tughril Khan was killed. Bughra Khan was appointed governor of the Bengal province.

When Balban died in 1287 pleasure loving Bughra Khan declined to be the Delhi Sultan and instead became an independent ruler of Bengal. So Balban was succeeded by Bughra Khan's son Kaiqubad on the throne of Delhi Sultanate. 

Written in verse in 1289, Qiran-us-sadin (the first historical masnavi of Amir Khusrau, the mediaeval Sufi mystic and poet) describes the much talked about meeting between Bughra Khan and Kaiqubad (Kaiqubad) when both of them tried to confront each other. 

After Bughra Khan, his son Ruknuddin Kaikaus  became the independent ruler of Bengal who ruled from 1291 to 1300 AD. 

Ludovico di Varthema

Ludovico di Varthema and King of Khambat / Image Credit 

Ludovico di Varthema was an Italian traveller, adventurer and soldier who came to India via Alexandria, Cairo, Damascus, Mecca, Aden and Hormuz. He has left behind a vivid account of the cities and customs and manners of the people 

Apart from visiting the Adil Shahi capital of Bijapur in South India, Varthema visited the mighty Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar.

His description of the Vijayanagar city contains very interesting and valuable information.

His voluminous travel account, The Itinerary of Ludovico di Varthema, provides a detailed account of Goa, Calicut and other ports on the west coast of India.

Ludvico Di Varthema was knighted by the Portuguese for joining their services in India. According to him, Gujarat's Muzaffarid dynasty ruler Mahmud Shah (1459-1511), also known as Mahmud Begada, had a long beard that reached his girdle, and he tied his very long moustaches behind his head.

Atala Mosque, Jaunpur

Atala Mosque / Image Credit  

In May 2024 a petition was filed in a local court in Jaunpur in Uttar Pradesh that the 14th-century Atala Mosque be declared a “Atala Devi Mandir”. The mosque was built by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-1408). Petitioners say that according to historical records the mosque was built on the site of a temple of Atala Devi.  

Who was Ibrahim Shah Sharqi?

Ibrahim Shah Sharqi was a ruler of the Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur, north of Varanasi in the present Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. This dynasty was founded by Malik Sarwar, a eunuch belonging to Sultan Firuz Tughluq. Malik Sarwar’s astonishingly fast rise to power can be attributed to the chaos that ruled supreme after the death of Firuz in 1388. He was made wazir of the Delhi sultanate by Firuz’s younger son, Muhammad Shah (1390-93) who conferred on him the title of Sultanush-Sharq (Ruler of the Eastern Kingdom). 

Malik Sarwar’s rise continued and in 1394 was appointed governor of Jaunpur, where he successfully repulsed the uprisings by the Hindu chiefs of Bihar and Avadh. The chiefs of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran and Tirhut were forced to accept his suzerainty. When Timur, the terrible Mongol leader of Central Asia, left Delhi in 1399 after his invasion of India, Sarwar proclaimed himself the independent ruler of Jaunpur. At the time of his death in 1399, his kingdom extended to Kol (modern Aligarh), Rapri (Mainpuri district) and Sambhal. The eastern boundaries of Sharqi kingdom ran along Tirhut and Bihar. 

Malik Sarwar was succeeded to the throne by his adopted son Malik Mubarak Qaranfal (1399-1401). His reign was not eventful. After him, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40), the younger brother of Malik Sarwar, became the ruler of Jaunpur and was the greatest of the Sharqi rulers. He entered into an alliance with Kirti Singh of Tirhut. He sent his forces to help the ruler of Tirhut when the latter was invaded by a Muslim army. Another military expedition of Ibrahim Shah Sharqi was the invasion of Bengal to remove the Hindu ruler Ganesha from the throne. The small independent sultanate of Kalpi was also annexed to his kingdom. His military ambition did not stop. He invaded the Delhi sultanate which was being ruled by the Saiyid ruler Muhammad Shah (1435-46). The Saiyid ruler was forced to make an alliance which was sealed with a marriage between Ibrahim’s son and the Sultan’s daughter. 

Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Muhmud Shah Sharqi (1440-57), who was also an ambitious ruler. After Mahmud’s death, Muhmmad became the next Sharqi ruler, who was deposed after a few months because of his excessive cruelty. Muhmmad was succeeded by Husain Shah Sharqi, who concluded peace with Bahlul Lodi, the founder of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. He is credited to have strengthening his army, and compelled Gwalior and Orissa to submit to his rule. The Lodi rulers of Delhi Sultanate were keen to extend their rule and as result invaded the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur. In 1494, Husain Shah Sharqi suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Bahlul's successor, Sultan Sikandar Lodi, and was unable to withstand the forces of Delhi Sultanate and as a result the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur was annexed into the Delhi Sultanate. 

Husain Shah died in 1505. Husayn Shah Sharqi was a musical expert and creator of many ragas. He is credited with making improvements to Khayal, a genre of Hindustani classical music. 

Rohtas Fort of Sher Shah in Pakistan

Rohtas Fort Jhelum Punjab / Image Credit

Located near Dina city in the Jhelum district in Pakistan, Rohtas Fort (also called Qila Rohtas) was built in the 16th century on the instructions of Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri who did not live longer to see its completion which was overseen in the later years by his son Islam Shah, popularly known as Salim Shah. 

The construction of Rohtas Fort started in 1541 under the supervision of Sher Shah's official Todar Mal who later on joined the Mughal Empire under Akbar as its finance minister.

The construction of this gigantic fort was undertaken by Sher Shah to keep the refractory tribes of Gakkhars in check and guard the northern frontier boundary of Sur Empire. The fort was named by him after his famous strong fortress of the same name in Bihar. Qila Rohtas was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. 

The Gakkhars ruled in the mountainous region between the upper courses of the Jhelum and the Indus. 

Invasions and Plunder of Muhammad Ghori

Grave of Muhammad Ghori / Image Credit

After Mahmud of Ghazni, the next prominent invader on India was Muhammad Ghori (1202-1206), who took the title of Moizuddin Muhammad bin Sam after he became sultan. 

The actual name of Muhammad Ghori was Shahab-ud-din. The dynasty to which he belonged was Ghurid dynasty which supplanted the Ghaznavids in Afghanistan when he conquered the last Ghaznavid principality of Lahore in 1186 by defeating its ruler, Khusrau Malik, who was executed in 1191. His dynsty was so named as his family belonged to the territory of Ghor in Afghanistan.

He conquered several territories but remained a loyal subordinate  to his brother Ghiyas-ud-din, the Ghur Sultan,  until the latter's death in 1202 after which he became the Sultan and ruled until his murder in 1206.

Muizuddin  made his first Indian expedition in 1175 AD. these invasions were on the Muslim states of Multan and the fortress of Uch.

During the reign of Chalukya or Solanki ruler Bhima II (1178-1241), Muhammad Ghori made an unsuccessful attempt to subjugate Gujarat in 1178 AD and was comprehensively defeated in the Battle of Kayadara that took place in Sirohi district in Rajasthan.

In 1191 Muhammad Ghori fought against Prithviraj Chauhan (known as Rai Pithaura to the Muslim historians), who was the Rajput ruler of Delhi, Ajmer and its allies, and was the greatest ruler of the Chauhan dynasty, whose kings also came to be known as Chahamanas of Sakambhari.

Rajput forces inflicted a terrible defeat on Muhammad Ghori whose army was completely routed. Muhammad Ghori saved his life with difficulty and retired to Ghazni. This is famously known as the First battle of Tarain or Thaneswar in history.

The defeat however did not deter Muhammad Ghori from carrying another military campaign against Prithviraj in the next year, in 1192 AD. Prithviraj appealed the neighboring rulers to join the campaign against the Sultan. Almost everyone, except the powerful Gahadvala king Jaichand, supported him. According to Tod, Jaichand, father-in-law of Prithviraj, felt a sense of jealousy of latter’s exalted position among the Indian rulers.

In this battle, known as the Second Battle of Tarain, fortune favoured Muhammad Ghori. The Turkish army dealt a body blow to the Hindu ranks. Prithviraj was captured and killed.

When Muhammad of Ghur died in 1206 issueless, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was his slave (Mamluk), assumed the title of Sultan and became the ruler of Indian territories won by his master. The dynasty which Qutb-ud-din founded came to be known as Mamluk Dynasty (Slave Dynasty), the first in the line of five dynasties that comprised Delhi Sultanate that ruled from 1206 to 1526.

Another slave, Nasir-ud-din Qabacha became the ruler of Sindh and Multan. He was defeated by the Slave Sultan Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak) and Sindh and Multan became part of the Delhi Sultanate. He died in 1228 CE.

Tajuddin Yalduz, successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni, was beheaded at Badaun on the instruction of Iltutmish in 1216. 

Another important slave was Bakhtiyar Khilji who is infamous for destroying the universities of Nalanda, Odantapura or Odantapuri and Vikramshila. He attacked the Sena capital Nadia in Bengal. The last Hindu ruler of Bengal Lakshman Sena of the Sena dynasty surrendered meekly to Bakhtiyar Khalji and escaped for his life by flight in 1203.

Badaun: History In Medieval Times

Jama Masjid Shamsi, Badaun / Image Credit

Today, Budaun may be a non- descript town in the district of the same name in the western Uttar Pradesh, history weighs heavily on it. 

About 235 km from Delhi, Budaun came into prominence when it became a centre of power during the reign of Iltutmish of the Slave Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate. Iltutmish, who ruled from AD 1210 to 1236, served as the governor of Badaun under the Delhi Sultan Qutab ud-din Aibak before becoming the Sultan. It was at Badaun where Tajuddin Yalduz, successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni and a rival of Iltutmish, was beheaded on the instruction of the latter in 1216. The imposing Shamsi mosque in the town was commissioned by Iltutmish. 

Budaun was the birthplace of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325), one of the most famous Sufi saints of Chisti order. His Dargah in Delhi attracts a large number of visitors. 

Alauddin Alam Shah, the last ruler of Sayyid Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, found it better to retire in Badaun after abdicating the throne in favour of Buhlul Khan Lodi who founded a new dynasty which came to be known as the Lodi dynasty. 

The tombs of Alam Shah and his mother are an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) protected monument in Badaun.  

Moinuddin Chisti and His Disciples

The founder of the Chisti Sufi order in India, Muinud-din-Chisti was also known as Khwaja Ajmeri. Headquartered in Ajmer in Rajasthan, Chisti Sufi order attracted devotees from both Muslims and Hindus and continue to do so. Moinuddin Chishti came from Sistan with the Muslim invasion, eventually arriving in Ajmer where he died in 1236.

Thousands of Sufi devotees travel to the shrine of Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer for the annual Urs.

Disciples of Moinuddin Chisti 

Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki

The most important disciple of Moinuddin Chisti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki popularized the Chisti order in Delhi. He had come to Delhi some time after 1221. He died in 1235. His tomb is in Mehrauli in Delhi and it is said that Qutub Minar takes its name from this Sufi saint. 

Hamiduddin Nagauri

Another prominent disciple of Moinuddin Chisti, Hamiduddin Nagauri was instrumental in initiating Chisti order in Nagaur in Rajasthan.

Alauddin Alam Shah – The Last Sayyid King

After Muhammad Shah's  death in A.D. 1445, his son, Alauddin Alam Shah (reigned 1445–51), succeeded him to the throne of the Sayyid Dynasty, the fourth in the line of five dynasties that comprised Delhi Sultanate that ruled from 1206 to 1526.

Alauddin Alam Shah was more inefficient than his father. Such was his fondness for gratification and aversion to work that he abdicated the throne in favour of Afghan Buhlul Khan Lodi (reigned 1451–89), the governor of Lahore and Sirhind, in 1451 and retired to Badaun (now in Uttar Pradesh), where he died in 1478. 

Alam Shah’s only claim to fame lies in the field of architecture. He constructed his father’s tomb which is located in the Lodhi Gardens in central Delhi.

He lies buried in a tomb in Badaun in Uttar Pradesh where his mother was also buried. The tombs of Alam Shah and his mother are an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) protected monument. 

Amber Fort Jaipur

If there is an absolute must see in Jaipur, it has to be the Amber Fort. A fine specimen of the Rajput architecture, the Amber (pronounced Amer) Fort -Palace is a classical example of romantic forts for which Rajasthan is famous all over the world. 

The Amber Fort is one of the six hill forts of Rajasthan which have been recognised as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Amber was the capital of the Kachhwaha rulers till 1727 A.D when Jaipur was made capital in place of Amber by Maharaja Jai Singh Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, who founded the Jaipur city. 

The construction of the Amber Fort was commenced in 1592 by Man Singh I, one of the foremost generals of the greatest Mughal emperor Akbar, and completed by his successor Jai Singh I. Made of red sandstone and marble and located high on a hill, the Amber Fort consists of a sprawling collection of fairytale buildings including palaces, halls, pavilions as well as temples and gardens. The spectacular reflection of the Amber Fort in the waters of the Maota Lake is a feast for the eyes. 

Rathore Rulers of Bikaner

Junagarh Fort in Bikaner / Incredibleindia.org

History of Bikaner in Rajasthan is the history of its Rathore rulers. Bikaner is named after its founder Rao Bika, son of Jodhpur’s founder Rao Jodha. Rao Bika, a Rajput chieftain of the Rathore clan, founded the princely state of Bikaner in 1486. In this endeavor he was assisted by his brave uncle Rawat Kandhal who was killed in 1490 in the Battle of Sahawa in which the Delhi Sultanate forces were then led by Sarang Khan, Governor of Hisar during the Lodhi dynasty. 

Battle of Sahawa, Rawat Kandhal and Sarang Khan / Image Credit

The area that constitutes the present day region of Bikaner was once a barren land known as “jungledesh”.

Another ruler Rao Lunakaran,  who ruled from 1505 to 1526, built Shri Laxminath Temple in Bikaner.  After his death in a battle with Nawab of Narnaul, the reins of the kingdom passed on to his son Rao Jait Singh who was born on 31 October 1489 and ruled from 1526 to 1542.

He faced the attack of the Mughal attack under Kamran, the second son of Babur, the first Mughal emperor. Kamran captured Bikaner’s fort, albeit for a day, which had otherwise remained unconquered in history. The Mughal army had to retreat due to the onslaught of the Bikaner forces. 

Jait Singh was killed in a battle with Rao Maldeo Rathore of Jodhpur. He was succeeded by his son Rao Kalyan Mal (1542 –1571) who acknowledged the suzerainty of Emperor Akbar at Nagaur in November 1570. With the support of Sher Shah Suri, the founder of Sur dynasty, Kalyan Mal defeated Maldeo in 1945 in the Battle of Sammel. It was a pyric victory for Sher Shah who suffered heavy loss due to the valiant efforts of commanders Jaita and Kumpa of Maldeo Rathore. He is said to have remarked after this ""for a handful of millet, I almost lost the Empire of Hindustan." 

Next in line was his son Rao Rai Singh who ruled from 1571 to 1611.  He is famous for commissioning the Junagarh Fort in Bikaner, built under the supervision of his minister Karan Chand. The Junagadh Fort was built between 1589 and 1594.

In the second half of the seventeenth century, Anup Singh, the ruler of Bikaner during 1669–1698, had led the Mughal army to capture the Golconda Sultanate under Abul Hasan Qutb Shah in 1687, for which Aurangzeb granted him the title Maharaja. Aurangzeb also granted him the royal honour of Mahi Maratib. 

He collected several manuscripts and established the Anup Sanskrit Library in his capital city of Bikaner.

After the weakening of the Mughal Empire following the death of Aurangzeb, Bikaner and the princely state of Jodhpur indulged in battle. 

In 1818 the princely state of Bikaner entered the protection of the East India Company under subsidiary alliance system started by Lord Wellesley (Lord Wellesley (1798-1805). Under this system the Indian ruler, who entered into this alliance, was to surrender a part of his territories or give money for the maintenance of a subsidiary force of the British needed for the defence of the state. The subsidiary state had also to surrender its external relations to the Company and accept a British resident at the capital.

At the time of its integration with the state of Rajasthan in 1949, the princely state of Bikaner controlled an area of more than (60,000 square km).

Grand Raigad Fort: Capital of Shivaji

A replica of Raigad Fort has been made as backdrop at the venue of Rashtriya Ekta Diwas parade in Kevadiya (now known as Ekta Nagar) in Gujarat to showcase the stories of incredible valour, heroic deeds and innovative warfare techniques of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.

Originally called Rairi,  the fort of Raigad is part of the 12 forts nominated by India for United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)  World Heritage under the title “Maratha Military Landscapes of India”. 

Among the 12 nominated forts, Raigad is the classic example of Maratha architecture and best representation of the capital fort on a hill, well integrated with the physiography of the hill with the most developed typologies of structures within the fort.

Grant Duff (1789 – 1858), a British administrator-historian of the Maratha period, had compared Raigad to the Rock of Gibraltar and labeled Raigad as the Gibraltar of the East.

Why did Shivaji Maharaj select the Raigad Fort as the capital of the Maratha Empire?

According to Sabhasad Bakhar (Ancient letter),  Marathi language biography of Shivaji, “Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj observed the potential of the hill or Rairi, which has steep escarpment and is the tallest of all mountains and hills in the region. The seamless and unbroken nature of the rock was a great potential. The fort of Daulatabad is also a good fort, however, it is not as good as Raigad, as this is taller and better, hence will be most suitable as a capital and a throne for the king.”

Raigad, surrounded by valleys shaped by the Kal and Gandhari rivers, stands as an isolated massif without connections to neighbouring hills. Its impregnable nature, attributed to physiographic features like steep cliffs and 1500-foot escarpments, is underscored by innovative military defence tactics.

History of Raigad Fort

In 1653 CE, Raigad (then known as Rairi) was captured by the Maratha forces from the Mores. In order to make the fort worthy of being a capital, Shivaji Maharaj assigned the work of reconstruction of the fort to architect Hiroji Indulkar. Subsequently, on 6th June, 1674 CE a grand coronation ceremony of Shivaji Maharaj was held on Raigad post, during which he attained the title of “Chhatrapati (Lord of the Umbrella, or king of kings)”. The fort served as the second capital of Shivaji and played an important role in the administration and expansion of the Maratha Kingdom.

The Raigad Fort stands as a silent reminder of Maharashtra's glorious past and it is identified as Durgaraj (king of forts). Various landmarks have lent it the credo of 'Shiva teerth'. The fort has attained the status of a holy shrine for the Shivbhakts as thousands of people throng the fort not only for its heritage character and it being a specimen of perfect defence architecture but also for being the seat of their role model, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, who is well known for valour, courage, administrative acumen, benevolence and patriotism. Anniversary of Shivrajyabhishek on the basis of Christian and Hindu calendars is celebrated with great enthusiasm which attract huge crowd from different parts of Maharashtra. Similarly, the death anniversary (punyatithi) of Shivaji Maharaj is also observed with great reverence.

It was here that Shivaji Maharaj had established his capital in the seventeenth century (1674 CE). Shivaji Maharaj had wrested the Fort from Chandrarao More, a jagirdar of the Adil Shah dynasty of the Bijapur Sultanate, in 1656 CE. It was considered most suitable for the capital of Hindvi Swaraj after due diligence and considering its strategic location and inaccessibility. The hilltop may only be accessed from one side of the hill. Shivaji Maharaj had ruled Hindvi Swaraj from Raigad Fort for six years till his death in 1680 CE. There is a Samadhi of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at Raigad Fort.

Raigad Fort is remarkable for magnificently designed gates, fortification walls and imposing monuments. It is quite unfortunate that except Shivaji Maharaj's Samadhi, Naqqar Khana, Sirkai Devi Temple, Jagadishwar Temple – a shrine dedicated to Lord Siva - most of the structures located within the fort, including the Hall of Public Audience (Rajsadar), Royal Complex, Queens' palace (Ranivasa), Bazarpeth, Manore (pleasure pavilions), Wadeshwar Temple, Khublada Burj, Massid Morcha, Nanne Darwaza are in a bad state of preservation.

The royal complex: The Royal Complex which includes Ranivasa, Rajsadar, Naqqarkhana, Mena Darwaza, and Palkhi Darwaja, is well-fortified and accessible only through three entrances: Naqqarkhana, Mena Darwaja, and Palkhi Darwaja. This fortified complex is commonly known as Balle Qilla (citadel). Adjacent to Balle Qilla are three elegant towers. One is located to the north, while the other two are situated to the east of the fortification wall. The three-storied towers (Manore) are highly ornate in design and appear to have originally served as pleasure pavilions. A toilet connected with proper drainage is noteworthy. An underground cellar (Khalbat Khana) is situated on the east, which was possibly used for secret meetings, personal worship, and also as a treasury.

Rajsadar (Hall of Public Audience):  This is where Shivaji Maharaj used to hold his court (darbar) to dispense justice on routine matters and to receive dignitaries and envoys. It is a rectangular structure facing east. It can be approached from the east through a magnificent gateway commonly known as Naqqarkhana. The gateway is a lofty three-storeyed structure facing the royal throne. While the topmost storey is built of bricks, the lower ones are constructed of stone blocks. It is believed that a royal band used to play at Naqqarkhana. It is an excellent example of architecture with astounding acoustic properties. The distance between Naqqarkhana and the royal throne is about 65 meters, yet even the slightest whisper can be heard clearly from both ends. Rajsadar is a mute witness to the joys, sorrows, anger, victories, administrative acumen, and overwhelming generosity of Shivaji Maharaj.

The main platform accommodates an octagonal meghdambari (ornate canopy) with a seated image of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj raised over the original site of the throne. It has been recorded that the royal throne, studded with diamonds and gold, rested on eight columns of gold weighing almost 1000 kg. It also bore the royal emblem of Shivaji Maharaj. The umbrella over the throne was adorned with strings of precious stones and pearls.

Holicha Mal: It is located outside Naqqarkhana. It is a wide-open ground that was most likely used for the annual Holi festival. On the western periphery of Holicha Mal, there is a small temple dedicated to Shirkai Bhavani, the presiding deity of the fort. It is believed that the presiding deity was originally housed on a high stone plinth located in the southwest of Holicha Mal, which was later shifted to its current location. To the north of Holicha Mal, there is a spacious and well-laid-out parallel row of structural units, commonly known as Bazar Peth. Each unit in this complex features a veranda in front and two back-to-back rooms in the rear. The plinth and walls are constructed from semi-dressed basalt stone blocks and random rubble stones, with lime invariably used as mortar.

Jagadishwar Mandir: The temple, facing east, is rectangular on plan with a mandapa in front and sanctum sanctorum on the rear. The temple could be entered through a low-height entrance. The sanctum sanctorum has a Siva linga which is under worship even now. The interior walls of the temple are without any carvings. However, the projected superstructure is supported by elegantly carved brackets.

Samadhi of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: Adjacent to the Temple, the Samadhi of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is located almost opposite to the eastern entrance of Jagadishwar Mandir. Originally, the Samadhi had a low height octagonal platform only. But, sometimes in the beginning of the twentieth century not only the height of the platform was raised but a canopy too had been constructed at the same site.

At the foothills, near the Raigadwadi village, is located Chitta Darwaza. It is also known locally as Jit Darwaja. After trekking by foot for about 70-80 m, there exists Khoob Lada Burj. It is a strategically located tower from where anyone coming close to the fort could easily be spotted by the security personnel.

Taj Mahal Crowning Glory of Mughal Architecture

Taj Mahal is an architectural feat that marks a height of Mughal architecture. 

Synonymous with beauty and elegance, the world beating landmark of Taj Mahal was built by the order of fifth Mughal emperor Shah Jahan between 1631 and 1648 in memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal who was his third wife. Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631 in childbirth at the age of 39 at Burhanpur,    

Taj Mahal is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Taj Mahal was the result of the labour of over 12, 000 workers, over a period of 22 years. The cost incurred on the construction in those times was 50 (5 million) Rupees.

Sometimes, the design of Taj Mahal is credited to a Venetian, Gernimo Verrones. According to whispers, Shah Jahan had its architects blinded, so that they could never again replicate a monument so grand and majestic. However, these claims are not verified and not confirmed by the historians.

Sacking of Hooghly Port by Shah Jahan in 1632

Mast of a Portuguese Ship at Bandel Church, Hooghly / Image Credit 

Portugal was the first European power to establish factories and trading settlements in India in the early 16th century. In 1579–80, a Portuguese captain named Pedro Tavares received a firman from Mughal emperor to establish a city in Bengal for the Portuguese. The Portuguese were also allowed to preach their religion.  As a consequence, a Portuguese colony was established at Hughli (in 1579 AD). The famous church of Bandel in Hooghly was built by the Portuguese. 

The friendly attitude of Akbar towards the Portuguese was continued by his son and next Mughal emperor Jahangir.  

Jahangir died in October 1627 and after a short interregnum marked by violent conflict among the other claimants for the throne, his son Shah Jahan became emperor in 1628 by eliminating all other possible contenders to the throne. Shahryar Mirza (youngest son of Jahangir), Dawar Bakhsh (Grandson of Jahangir and Khusrau’s eldest son), two sons of Akbar's son Daniyal (Tahmuras and Hushang) were all executed.  

Shah Jahan was harbouring a grudge against the Portuguese as the latter did not side with him when he rebelled against his father Jahangir in 1622. 

Added to this, the casus belli for the sack of Hooghly by Shah Jahan in 1932 was the abduction of two slave girls of his consort Mumtaz Mahal by the Portuguese in 1624 during the reign of Jahangir. The Portuguese, on the other hand, became involved with the slave trade. This was rankling in Shah Jahan's mind. Hence he ordered Bengal governor Qasim Khan to crush the Portuguese. In 1632 Qasim Khan captured Hooghly after three months. The Bandel church was burnt down during the sacking of Hooghly.   

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Amboyna Massacre of 1623

Dutch East India Company (VOC) / Image Credit

The Amboyna Massacre, as it came to be called in England, took place in 1623 in Amboyna, an important clove-producing island in modern-day Indonesia. 10 Englishmen, 10 Japanese, and one Portuguese were executed by the local authorities of Dutch East India Company. 

Portuguese were the common enemy of the English and the Dutch when the last two entered the East.  However, the commercial rivalry between the English and the Dutch led to the massacre at Amboyna (currently Amboyna).

Spice trade has been very lucrative throughout the history. In the ‘Age of Discovery’ (a period of European overseas exploration from the 15th to 17th century), the European powers - Dutch, Portuguese, English and Spanish, had been in a fierce struggle for supremacy of the spice trade. 

The English poet and dramatist John Dryden had written a dram called Amboyna, or the Cruelties of the Dutch to the English Merchants in 1673. 

Gol Gumbaz: piece de resistance of Bijapur

Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur (Karnataka) / Image Credit

 

The most famous monument in Karnataka’s Bijapur, Gol Gumbaz (Round Dome) is the tomb of Mohammed Adil Shah (1627 -56), the seventh ruler of Adil Shahi Dynasty, one of the five succession states that came into existence after disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate of Deccan. Bijapur was established in the 10th–11th centuries during the reign of Kalyani Chalukyas (Western Chalukyas) and was known as Vijayapura (city of victory). 

Built by the ruler himself in his lifetime, this gigantic mausoleum is an engineering marvel known for perfect stereophonic acoustics. Its huge round dome is world’s second largest in size only to the dome of St Peter's Basalica in Rome. The external diameter of this hemispherical dome is about 44 metres.  

Every sound in the central chamber of the monument is echoed seven times. Another feature of this ambitious monument of the Adil Shahi Dynasty is the whispering gallery, where even the minute sounds can be heard clearly 37 meters away. The external diameter of this hemispherical dome is about 44 metres.  

Gol Gumbaz complex contains a mosque, a dargah, a Naqqar Khana (a hall for the trumpeters), and a dharmashala.

In 1636-37 Bijapur was compelled to accept the Mughal suzerainty and pay annual tribute. Muhamamd Adil Shah was able to extend the territories of Bijapur by capturing those of Ahmadnagar and Vijayanagar, and helped the Mughals in annexing the former in 1636. He received the title of Shah from Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in 1648, the only ruler of Bijapur to receive such recognition from the Mughals.

Chennakeshava Temple of Aralaguppe

Chennakeshava temple of Aralaguppe / Image Credit

Dedicated to Vishnu, the Chennakeshava temple of Aralaguppe is a Hoysala era shrine.  Located at the small town of Aralaguppe in the Tumkur district of Karnataka, the temple is located 60 km from the Hassan city. It was built in the middle of the 13th century by the Hoysala ruler Vira Someshwara (1235–1263 CE). 

Dedicated to Vishnu, the Chennakeshava temple of Aralaguppe is a Hoysala era shrine.  Located at the small town of Aralaguppe in the Tumkur district of Karnataka, the temple is located 60 km from the Hassan city. It was built in the middle of the 13th century by the Hoysala ruler Vira Someshwara (1235–1263 CE). 

Zeb-un-Nisa: Mughal Princess Imprisoned for More Than Two Decades by Her Father

Zaibunissa Palace / Image Credit

Mughal princess Zeb-un-Nisa was the eldest child of sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. She was a poetess of considerable merit and wrote under the pen name of Makhfi (meaning Hidden One in Persian). She produced a brilliant collection of beautiful poems which were published after her death in 1702 as Diwan-i-Makhfi.

Born in 1738 in Daulatabad in Deccan, Zeb-un-Nisa seems to be antithetical to what Auranzeb stood for. 

Strained relationship between Zeb-un-Nisa and Aurangzeb had led the father to imprison the daughter for the last 20 years of her life at Salimgarh Fort which lies adjacent to the Red Fort  in Delhi.

Her grandfather, the fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, had betrothed her to Sulaiman Shikoh, the eldest son of Dara Shikoh, elder brother of Aurangzeb. The marriage, however, did not take place. This is because as soon as Shah Jahan fell ill in September, 1657, it sparked a deadly war of succession among his four sons – Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. During the course of this fratricidal war of succession Murad  and Sulaiman Shikoh were executed on the orders of Aurangzeb in the Gwalior Fort where they were imprisoned.

Badoli Temples

Ghateshwar Mahadev, Badoli / Image Credit

Built in the tenth century AD by the Gurjara Pratihara rulers, Badoli Temples are nine temples located near Rawerbhata in Chittorgarh district of Rajasthan. Of these eight temples is situated within a walled enclosure. The ninth temple is about 1 kilometre from the complex of eight temples. 

Four temples are dedicated to Shiva, two to Durga and one each to Shiva-Trimurti, Vishnu and Ganesha. Dedicated to Shiva, Ghateshwara Mahadeva Temple is the most prominent of the Badoli Temples. 

Karnataka's Hoysala Temples Now India's 42nd UNESCO's World Heritage site

'Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysala', the three Hoysala temples in Karnataka, have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

These temples are the Chennakeshava temple at Belur, Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu and The Keshava temple at Somnathapura. While the first two are in Hassan district, the third is in Mysuru district. 

All the three temples are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Nominations were entered as ‘’The Sacred Ensembles of Hoysalas’’.

While the Chennakeshava temple and Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu were on the UNESCO’s tentative list since 2014, the Keshava temple at Somanathapur was appended to the other two monuments under the tentative list and all the three were officially nominated by the Centre as India’s entry for 2022-23 in February in 2022.

An expert from International Commission on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) concluded the site visits covering all the three temples in September 2022 and the monuments were officially inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites during the 45th session of the World Heritage Committee, which is being held in Saudi Arabia.

Chennakesava Temple, Belur

Chennakesava Temple at Belur / Image Source

Commissioned by Hoysala ruler Vishnuvardhana in 1117 AD, the Chennakesava temple took 103 years to complete. This Vishnu temple has three entrances and is intricately carved with sculptures and pillars.

An absolute must see destination in any cultural tour of India, Belur, located on the banks of the river Yagachi in Hassan district, was the capital of the powerful south Indian dynasty of the Hoysalas. Belur is home to the awe-inspiring Chennakesava Temple, a fine specimen of Hoysala architecture. 

Hoysaleswara temple, Halebidu 

The-Hoysaleswara-Temple-in-Halebidu

17 km away from Belur is the 12th century Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu.  Hoysaleswara temple is a cultural extravaganza. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the temple was also built during the reign of King Vishnuvardhana. Its construction started around 1121 CE and was complete in 1160 CE.

Previously known as Dorasamudra or Dwarasamudra, Halebid was the Hoysala capital before Belur. 

Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura

Keshav-Temple-in-Somanathpur

The Chennakesava Temple, also referred to as Chennakeshava Temple and Keshava Temple, is a Vaishnava Hindu temple on the banks of River Kaveri at Somanathapura in the Mysuru district of Karnataka. 

The temple was consecrated in 1258 CE by Somanatha Dandanayaka, a general of the Hoysala King Narasimha III. 

Santiniketan in the Indian state of West Bengal  was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as the 41st site.