Overlooked fort of Adilabad

                                                    Gate entry to Adilabad Fort

Situated southeast of the massive Tughlaqabad Fort, on the opposite side of the Badarpur -Mehrauli road, the relatively unknown Adilabad fort is referred to by historians as the fourth fort of Delhi, the others being Red Fort, Old Fort and Tughlaqabad Fort.

Adilabad fort has for long been in the shadows of Tughlaqabad Fort which was built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, the founder of the Tughluq dynasty, the third of the five dynasties, the combination of which went on to be called the Delhi Sultanate.

Adilabad fort, on its part, was built by his son Juna Khan, better known as Muhammad bin Tughluq, who succeeded his father in 1325. 

Shah Jahan III: A pawn in the 18th Century Mughal power game

Shah Jahan III / Image credit

Born Muhi ul-Millat, Shah Jahan III was a Mughal Emperor for a brief period from December 1759 to October 1760. His father was Muhi us-Sunnat who was the son of Aurangzeb’s youngest son, Muhammad Kam Bakhsh. 

Muhi ul-Millat was raised to the throne as Shah Jahan III by the Mughal Vizier Ghaziuddin Khan Feroz Jung III, popularly known as Imad-ul-Mulk on whose orders the previous Mughal emperor Alamgir II was put to death on 29th November 1759. Shah Jahan III was later deposed by the Marathas who now placed Shah Alam II on the throne. 

Tale of Imperial Medieval Cholas - Part 2

The power of the Chola dynasty reached its pinnacle during the reigns of Rajendra Chola (1014- 1042) and his father Rajaraja I (985-1014). Rajendra Chola was the worthy son and successor of his father. Though he succeeded to the Chola throne in 1014, his regal years are counted from 1012 AD when he was declared heir-apparent.

By his military prowess and administrative skill, Rajendra Chola raised the Chola power to the zenith of glory. Probably in 1017 AD, he conquered the whole of Sri Lanka, the northern part of which was already annexed to the Chola empire during the reign of his father Rajaraja I.

In the next year (1018 AD) Rajendra Chola forced the rulers of Kerala and the Pandyan country to accept the suzerainty of the Cholas. He defeated the Western Chalukya power under Jayasimha II Jagadekamalla (c. 1016-42). Rajendra also came in conflict with the Pala ruler of Bengal, Mahipala I, and his armies spread their victorious wings as far as the Ganges. To commemorate this daring victory, he assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (The Chola conquer of the Ganga) and founded a new capital named after him - Gangaikonda – Cholapuram, identified with modern Gangaikondapuram in the Ariyalur district of Tamil Nadu.

Rajendra Chola possessed a powerful fleet and is credited with sending a great naval expedition which occupied parts of South East Asia including Myanmar, Malaya and Sumatra. This naval expedition, unique in the annals of Indian history, was undertaken to presumably suppress the piratical activities of the Indonesian rulers, which were an obstacle to the flourishing trade between China and the South India.

Rajendra Chola is known by a variety of titles such as Tyagasamudra, Gangaikonda and Pandita Chola.   Parakesari, Mummudi and Yuddhamalla were some the other titles that were assumed by Rajendra I.

                                   Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram / Image Source

He built the Shiva temple in Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Known as Brihadisvara Temple, this temple has a similar name as the one built by his father in Thanjavur. A UNESCO World Heritage site, this temple is adorned with exquisite granite sculptures.  

Rajendra Chola I was succeeded his son Rajadhiraja I, in 1044. Early in the reign of his father Rajadhiraja I was appointed crown prince in 1018. Rajadhiraja I came in conflict with the Western Chalukya ruler Someshvara I Ahvamalla (c1042-1068). In the famous battle of Koppam in 1052 between the Cholas and Western Chalukyas, the Cholas emerged victorious, Rajadhiraja I lost his life, the only Chola ruler to die in battle. His younger brother Rajendra II was crowned king on the battlefield and managed to turn the tide in the battle. He marched on to Kolhapur and where he planted a jayastambha (victory pillar) before returning to his capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Rajadhiraja Chola has assumed the title of Rajakesari. 

Reign of Rajendra II witnessed the continuation of the Chalukya-Chola struggle and both sides as usual clamed victory for themselves. He continued the traditional war with the Chalukyas.  in 1062 AD  he  inflicted a crushing defeat on Someshvara I Ahvamalla in the battle of Kudal-Sangamam near the confluence of Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers. 

After Rajendra II’s death in 1963, his younger brother Virarajendra Chola came to the throne. During the reign of Rajadhiraja I, Virarajendra served as the viceroy of the Chola province in Sri Lanka. Virarajendra gave his daughter in marriage to the Western Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya VI bringing the perpetual hostilities between the two kingdoms to a temporary suspension. Virarajendra also installed Vijayaditya on the throne of Vengi, which was rightfully Eastern Chalukya prince Kulottunga’s. Vijayaditya was the uncle of Kulottunga.

After Virarajendra’s death in 1070 AD, his son Adhirajendra came to the Chola throne. After ruling for few months Adhirajendra lost his life in a popular rising. Taking advantage of the prevailing confusion Kulottunga captured the Chola throne and expelled Vijayaditya from the Vengi throne.  

Tale of Imperial Medieval Cholas - Part 1

Map showing the greatest extent of the Chola empire c. 1030 under Rajendra Chola I / Image Source

Cholas, one of the three major ruling dynasties of the Tamil Country during the Sangam period (between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D.), were reduced to the dustbin of obscurity by the Pallavas, only to rise once again in the mid 9th century AD and rule for some 300 years the Coromandel Coast and much of south India and as far as Sri Lanka and the Maldive Islands. During this period the Cholas came to be called Imperial Cholas because they managed to bring large swath of territory under their influence. 

The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya who is credited to have restored the lost glory of ancient Cholas sometime before in 850 AD. A feudatory of the Pallava rulers, Vijayalaya captured Thanjavur from the Mutharaiyar chieftains who held sway in these parts of Tamil Nadu until the rise of the Chola power in the mid-9th century AD. He made Thanjavur his capital where he founded a temple dedicated to the goddess Nisumbhasudani (Durga). 

Vijayalaya built the Vijayalaya Choleeshwaram temple at Narthamalai (in Pudukottai district in Tamil Nadu), 25km from the city of Trichy.  

Battle of Thirupurambiyam

Vijayalaya was succeeded by his son Aditya I in c. 871 AD. Aditya I joined a confederacy of Pallavas and Western Gangas to defeat the Pandyan ruler Varagunavarman II in the Battle of Sri Purambiyam or Thirupurambiyam in 879 CE near Kumbakonam. Varagunavarman II lost the battle though Western Ganga king Prithvipati I lost his life in the battle. The confederacy was led by the Pallava king Aparajita. 

Prithivipati I was buried in a pallipadai temple in the village of Thirupurambiyam. The pallipadai temple is now known as Bhagavathi Ayyanar temple.

Not satisfied with remaining subordinate to the Pallava power, he now embarked on a campaign to altogether extinguish the Pallava power and killed its last ruler Aparajita in c. 897 CE, bringing the Pallava territory under the Chola dominions. 

After Aditya I, his son Parantaka I ascended the Chola throne in 907 and ruled for forty-eight years till 955. Continuing the expansionist policy of his father he invaded Pandyan territory under Maravarman Rajasimha II and conquered Madurai in 910 and assumed the title of Maduraikonda (captor of Madurai). In 949 Parantaka I, however, suffered defeat at the hands of Rshtrakuta king Krishna III in the battle of Takkolam. Rajaditya, eldest son of Parantaka I, lost his life in the battle when a well-aimed arrow by Butuga II (Western Ganga king and brother-in-law Krishna III) struck him while he was on an elephant back. After his success in the battle, Krishna III adopted the title of ‘Conqueror of  Kanchi (Kanchipuram) and Thanjai (Thanjavur)’. This caused a temporary setback to the rising power of the Cholas. 

During the reign of Parantaka I, the Koranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district was built. 

Koranganthar Temple, Srinivasanallur, Trichy district / Image Source

Golden Roof of Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram Image source

Parantaka I had laid the golden roof of Chidambaram's Nataraja Temple to which Chola rulers were attached. 

In 955, Parantaka I was succeeded to the Chola throne by his son Gandaraditya whose military exploits are less known. Gandaraditya, with his wife Sembiyan Mahadevi, is more known for his work in the field of culture and religion. At the time of Gandaraditya’s reign, the Chola kingdom was reduced to the size of a principality. After his death the throne passed on to his brother Arinjaya who also ruled for a short period (956-57). 

Arinjaya was succeeded by his son Parantaka Chola II who ruled till 973. He was also known as Sundara Chola.  In the last years of his reign personal tragedy struck him when his eldest son and crown prince Aditya II was assassinated. He was compelled by Uttam Chola (son of Gandaraditya) to declare him as heir-apparent in preference to Arumoli (future Rajaraja I or Raja Raja the Great), younger brother of Aditya II. Parantaka Chola II died in 973 and was succeeded by Uttam Chola. 

After the death of Uttam Chola in 935 AD, Arumolivarman or Arumoli crowned himself as Rajaraja, one of two greatest kings of the Chola dynasty. The power of the Chola dynasty reached its pinnacle during the reigns of Rajaraja I (985-1014) and his son Rajendra Chola (1014- 1042).

One of the earliest campaigns of Rajaraja I resulted in the uprooting of Chera kings whose fleet he destroyed by attacking Kandalur. He defeated Pandyan ruler Amarabhujanga and took Madurai. He employed a navy to invade Sri Lanka and destroyed Anuradhapura. He annexed Ceylon’s northern part which became a Chola province under the name Mummadi Chola Mandalam. Polonnaruva became the capital of Mummadi Chola Mandalam. 

Rajaraja I turned his attention towards the Eastern Chalukya Kingdom of Vengi. Eastern Chalukya ruler Vimaladitya (1011–1018 AD) recognised the Chola suzernity and married Rajaraja I’s daughter Kundavai. 

Towards the closing years of his reign Rajaraja annexed the Maldives and the Lakshadweep island. 

Rajaraja built the Siva temple Rajarajesvara or Brihadishvara Temple at Tanjore (now Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu). Known for its beautiful decoration, this magnificent Shiva temple was completed in 1010 AD. A UNESCO World Heritage site, this temple contains elaborate pillared halls and was probably the largest temple built in India up to that time. The Brihadishvara Temple is also known as the Big Temple. 

Rajaraja is known for his religious tolerance. He gave a helping hand to the Sailendra ruler of the Srivijaya Empire Mara Vijayottunggavarman in building a Buddhist monastery in  Nagapattinam. The monastery was known Chudamani Vihara after Cudamanivarman, father of Mara Vijayottunggavarman. Srivijaya Empire was in what is now Indonesia and much of the Malay Archipelago. 

Rajaraja had assumed different titles including Mummadi Chola and Chola-martanda. 

Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu / Image Source

For Rajendra Chola I, son of Rajaraja I Read Tale of Imperial Medieval Cholas - Part 2 

Indasala Cave

image source

Indasala Cave or Indrasala Cave in Bihar is identified with a cave set at the base of a cliff of sheer rocks in the Giriyek Mountain in the midst of a serene and tranquil landscape. 

Located to the east of Rajgir, Indasala Cave is a famed Buddhist site where the Buddha is said to have delivered one of his most thought provoking sermons recorded in the Sakkapanha Sutta. 

According to the Buddhist accounts, Sakka, an inquisitive person who was searching answers for his questions, came to the cave where the Buddha stayed for some time and asked his forty-two questions which were fittingly answered by the Buddha.  

It was during his stay at Indasala Cave that the Buddha uttered verses 206, 207 and 208 of the beautiful Pali text, Dhammapada (Verses on the Virtues). Added to this, the Indasala Cave also played host to Buddhasrijnana, the famous commentator on the Guhyasamaja Tantra. 

Another prime attraction of the area is the Hansa Stupa, located on the top of the Giriyak Mountain. The stupa, hailed as the most complete one in India, finds mention in the accounts of famous 7th century Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang who gives a valuable description of its construction.  Hiuen Tsang made it a point to visit this stupa. 

Before Hiuen Tsang, Indasala Cave was also visited in the fifth century AD by the Chinese monk Fa-hsien who came to India to obtain copies of Buddhist scriptures. 

Pilak: Buddhist Pilgrimage Centre in Tripura

                                            Pilak Buddhist Stupa / Image Source

Pilak in South Tripura is an archeological site of immense significance to Buddhism which flourished here from the 8th to the 12th century AD. The excavations at the site have unearthed a fair amount of ancient Buddhist sculptures and artefacts including a stupa, statues of Buddha in meditation and Avalokiteśvara.

Located close to the Bangladesh border, Pilak is an extension of Buddhist sites of Bangladesh and Burma and formed part of the Samatat kingdom in ancient Bengal. The area has been referred to the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited this area during 637-39 AD. 

Today Pilak attracts thousands of Buddhists from across the world and is fast emerging an important Buddhist pilgrimage site in India.

You can also find a colossal image of Hindu god Surya in a standing posture holding lotus in Pilak. 

How to Reach Pilak

Air: The nearest airport to Pilak is at Tripura's capital Agartala which is 100 km away. The Agartala airport is connected by air with major cities in India. 

Rail: The nearest major railhead is Agartala Railway station. Kanchenjunga Express and Tripura Sundari Express connect Agartala with Kolkata and Delhi respectively by rail. 

Road: Good motorable roads connect Pilak with other parts of Tripura including Agartala. 

Ancient Port City of Kaveripattinam

                                  Buddhist Monastery ruins, Poompuhar / Image Credit

40 km from Chidambram town in the state of Tamil Nadu, Kaveripattinam, now a fishing village in the Mayiladuthurai district, was a great city and the chief port of the Chola empire in ancient India. It had an artificial harbour which was built by soldiers captured by the great Chola ruler Karikala on a raid on Sri Lanka. The greatness of Kaveripattinam finds mention in the great ancient Tamil epics of Silappathikaram (Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai.

Manimekalai was written by the poet Seethalai Saathanar, who was a Buddhist. The heroine of Manimekalai, Manimegalai, is the daughter of Kovalan, the son of a wealthy merchant of the city of Kaveripattinam. Her mother was Madavi, a dancer who became a Buddhist nun on hearing of Kovalan’s death. Manimegalai also became a Buddhist nun.

Kaveripattinam (currently Poompuhar), also known as Puhar in ancient India, is home to the ruins of a 4th-5th-century AD Buddhist monastery. According to the 5th century AD Pali commentator Buddhadatta, Theravada Buddhism flourished in Kaveripattinam. He spent some time in this monastery while composing his Abhidhammavatara.

Located at the convergence of river Kaveri and Bay of Bengal, Kaveripattinam was swallowed by the sea and is now only a small village.