The Religion of Harappa

As is the case with the civilizations of the ancient world, religion must have played an important role in the lives of Harappan people. However, nothing can be said with certainty about the religious life of the people of Indus valley civilization since our information on the topic is fragmentary. 

The Harappan religion was polytheistic. 

On the basis of information gathered from Harappan seals, seal impressions, terracotta and metal figures, cemeteries, etc, we can come to the conclusion that worship of the Mother Goddesses was very much prevalent in the society. It is very much to the point to underline the fact that worship of Mother Goddesses came into vogue in Hinduism one thousand years after the decline of Harappan culture. Other traits of later Hinduism such as worship of Pashupati Shiva, sacred animals trees etc, were practised by the Harappan people. 

Among the male gods, the most striking is a three faced horned deity seated cross legged on a throne and surrounded by four wild animals, an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and a buffalo, with two deer under the seat. The god has been described by British archaeologist Sir John Marshal as “Proto-Shiva”. 

Animals played a big part in the religion of the people of Indus valley civilization. Though all the animals represented on the seals and sealings or in terracotta, faience and stones may not be sacred. The most common animal found on the Harappan seals is the bull, usually depicted with a single horn and often been referred to as ‘a unicorn’. As we know in Hinduism the bull is specially connected with the god Shiva, but the bull of Harappa is not associated with the “Proto-Shiva” as discussed earlier. The cow, so revered in later Hinduism, is nowhere depicted on the Harappan seals. 

The worship of tree, fire and water was prevalent in the Harappan culture. The prevalence of tree worship is evidenced by the representation of on many seals and sealings found in the various archeological sites belong to Harappan civilization. The most striking of these depicts the trishula horned deity standing nude, with long hair, between two branches of a tree with half kneeling figure of a worshipper with long hair armlets and horns, behind whom is a human headed goat. The leaves of the tree appear like those of pipal, much revered by the Buddhists. 

The worship of Phallic (lingam), the symbol of Shiva, was in vogue in Harappan times. Similarly, on the basis of certain large ring shaped stones, Marshall suggested them as representations of the female generative organ (yoni). However Marhsall’s view has been contested by George F Dales who opines, “There is no archeological evidence to support claims of special sexually-oriented aspects of Harappan religion.” 

That Harappan people envisioned afterlife can be ascertained from their grave offerings which included grains, ornaments, pottery and other materials of daily use. 

Bibliography 

A. L. Bhasham : The Wonder that was India

Life of Vardhamana Mahavira

Vardhamana Mahavira

A contemporary of The Buddha, Vardhamana, known to his followers as Mahavira, was born in village Kundandagrama near Vaishali in Bihar in a kshatriya (the warrior class) family about 540 BC. His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Jnatrikas clan and his mother Trishala was sister of Chetaka, the Licchavis king of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, who was married to Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka. Mahavira was married to Yashoda and had a daughter whose husband, Jamali, became the first disciple of Mahavira.

Though Mahavira was educated in all branches of knowledge he shied away from materialistic life. At the age of 30, when his parents were dead, he renounced his family, became an ascetic, and proceeded in search of truth. For over twelve years, he went from one place to another and led a life of torture by subjecting his body to all kinds of hardships but it was of no avail. During this period he met another ascetic, Gosala Maskariputra, who later founded the sect of Ajivikas. The Ajivika sect enjoyed its heydays during the Mauryan rule under Ashoka and his successor Dasharatha. It, however, survived until fourteenth century in south India.

In the thirteenth year of his asceticism on the tenth of Vaishakha, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama he found full enlightenment and Nirvana. From now onwards he was called Jaina or Jitendriya (one who has conquered his senses), Nirgranthas (“Free from Bonds”) and Mahavira (the brave) and his followers were named Jain. For the remaining thirty years Mahavira moved from one place to another in the Gangetic kingdoms and preached his religion. At the age of 72 he breathed his last at Pava, near the Magadhan capital Rajagrha in 527 BC.

Women in Ancient India

Throughout most of ancient Indian history, the role of women was more or less confined to the home. Though there are instances where women wielded power and authority, this did not imply the common lot of the women in ancient India.

A woman was under the patriarchal authority of her parents, husband and sons. Even under Buddhism which boasted of liberal rules, a nun would be treated as subordinate to her male counterpart.

The status of women in ancient India kept on changing at different stages. During the Rig Vedic Period, women were treated equal to man.  During the Vedic period women participated in the public sacrifices alongside men. Some Vedic hymns are attributed to women.   During this period, there were women rishis, and they were treated with respect and dignity.

However with the passage of time the status of women declined. 

Manu, one of the famous lawgivers of ancient India, declared that wife, like the slave, has no right to property. He dictated a woman would be dependent on her father in childhood, on her husband in youth and on her son in old age. However, some allowed a woman to own their special property (stridhana) in the form of jewellery and clothing.

In ancient Indian society a woman could find their role in religion, but could not serve the temples as priestess.

However in Vedic period the position of women was much more enhanced. Women seers are said to have composed some o the Vedic hymns. The famous discussion between Gargi and Yajnavalkya is well known. But by the beginning of the Christian era, women were declared ineligible for Vedic study. However, there are references to many references to literary works attributed to women poets and dramatists. In Tamil literature, the early poetess Avvaiyar composed works of high literary merit. Poruna-raatr-uppadai, which describes the victory of Karikala Chola in the battle at Venni near Thanjavur, has been attributed to a potter’s wife.

The earliest  known Sati stone in India is an inscription engraved in A.D. 510 on a pillar found at Eran near Sagar in Madhya Pradesh. The Eran inscription mentions the wife of Goparaja, a vassal of Bhanugupta of the Gupta empire, burning herself on her husband's pyre.  The inscription mentions that his wife followed him on the pyre after his death in the battle against the Hunas.

 The practice of sati was disapproved of by Bana, the court poet of Harsha.

Medicine in Ancient India

"The system of blood circulation was discovered by them centuries before Harvey was heard of." - P. Johnstone

The history of medicine in India is as old and as rich as its civilization. Some of the earliest practices of ancient Indian medicine have been documented by Charaka and Shushruta, the two great teachers of Indian medical science. An alumnus of the famed centre of learning Taxila (presently in the Punjab province of Pakistan), he wrote Charaka Samahita, while Shushruta- Samhita was composed by Shushruta. These two are the basic textbooks of Indian medicine.

It can be inferred from these textbooks of ancient Indian science that ancient India placed great importance on prevention rather than cure. Personal hygiene and public health were accorded their due importance. The medical texts recognized the importance of fresh air and light.

Though vegetarianism was much encouraged in ancient India, the ancient medical texts recommended the use of both meat and alcohol in moderation.

The great Mauryan ruler Ashoka is said to have established free dispensaries where Buddhist monks studied medical lore.

The ancient Indian knowledge of physiology was no so superior. The reason was the taboo on contact with corpses. They also have an obscure understanding of the functioning of the brain. For the Indian, much like many other ancient peoples, heart appeared to have performed the function of the brain.

However, ancient India has, of course, developed a good knowledge of surgery. Apart from the caesarian section and bone-setting, the Indian surgeons had mastered the plastic surgery. In fact Indian taught Rhinoplasty to the surgeons of east India company.

Ancient Indians were well familiar with pharmacy. They were familiar with drug preparation from animals, plants and minerals.

The Kailash Temple: Epitome of Indian Rock-cut Architecture

An awesome feat of engineering, the Kailash Temple or the Kailashnath Temple, dedicated to Hindu God Shiva, is the most impressive remainder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Deccan that held sway for more than two centuries. Under the Rashtrakutas the rock-cut architecture in India reached its zenith.

Carved out of the single rock (monolithic) hewn out of Charanandri hills at Ellora under the instructions Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (756-775), the Kailashnath Temple has been described in glowing terms by Percy Brown, the noted writer on Indian architecture. He says, "The temple of Kailash at Ellora is not only the most stupendous single work of art executed in India, but as an example of rock architecture it is unrivalled…. The Kailash is an illustration of one of those occasions when men's minds, hearts and heads work in unison towards the consummation of a supreme ideal. It was under such conditions of religious and cultural stability that this grand monolith representation of Shiva's paradise was produced."

The shrine of Kailash Temple is complete with shrineroom, hall, gateway, votive pillars, lesser shrines and cloisters. The carvings of Kailashnath Temple are among the finest sculptures in India. Mainly in the form of deep reliefs, these sculptures give the effect of freestanding sculpture and illustrate scenes of mythology. The grand sculpture of Ravana trying to lift Mount Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva, has been vividly portrayed.

Stone inscription with Indus signs found at Dholavira

Recently an inscription on stone, with three big Indus signs and possibly a fourth, has been discovered in the archeological site of Dholavira in the state of Gujarat. The discovery of three-metre long inscription becomes all the more significant since for the first time a Harappa script has been found engraved on a natural stone in the Indus Valley. So far the Harappa script has been found on seals made of terracotta, steatite, ceramics etc.

An artist's impression of Dholavira

The Big Bangle Theory

That wearing bangles in India is an ancient tradition can be gauged from the fact among the various objects found during the excavations of the Harappan cities bangles are also included. And the tradition continues even today. Bangles were also the prized possession of the women in the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Iran.