Art and Craft of Harappan Civilisation

Clay utensils of Harappan Civilization

Mahendravarman I: The Versatile Pallava Ruler

A contemporary of north Indian ruler Harshavardhan in the seventh century AD, Mahendravarman was one of the prominent kings of Pallava dynasty which had been ruling the region south of Krishna-Tungabhadra in South India since fourth century AD. Mahendravarman was an individual of versatile genius: an author, an architect, a painter, a musician and a soldier. 

Mahendravarman is known for introducing the cave style of temple architecture for which Pallavas are known all over the world.

Mahendravarman was the son of Simhavishnu who ascended the throne in the latter half of the sixth century AD; or to be more precise, 575 AD. From Simhavishnu’s time the history of Pallavas emerges from legend and dubious tradition and becomes more definite.

Mahendravarman’s accession to the throne signaled the growing strength of the Pallavas. It was the reign of Mahendravarman which saw the beginning of that famous struggle between the Pallavas and their sworn enemies, the Chalukyas of Vatapi (early western Chalukyas), who ruled north of them. The struggle which became necessary for the mastery of south India, lingered through the generations. During his reign the Pallava capital Kanchipuram was destroyed by western Chalukya king Pulakesin II.

In his early days Mahendravarman was a Jaina, but was converted to Shaivism by Appar, one of the most famous of the sixty-three Nayanars, the Shaiva poets of the Tamil country. This conversion was to a great measure responsible for the decrease in the royal patronage to Jainism in Tamil nadu.

Mahendravarman I, who assumed the significant title of Vichitrachitta, "curious-minded", was a writer of standing. He is credited with the authorship of the famous burlesque known as the Mattavilasa-prahasana. He had also authored another play Bhagavadajjuka. He had several titles such as Mattavilasa, ‘Chatrumalla’, ’Gunabhara’, ’Avnibhajana’, ’ Sankirna Jati’. 

Mahendravarman I was a great patron of art and architecture too. Under his instructions, some of the finest rock-temples at Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram (located in the Chengalpattu district in Tamil Nadu) were hewn out. 

Siraj-ud-Daulah, The Bengal Nawab

                                Mir Jafar and Robert Clive after the Battle of Plassey by Francis Hayman

After the death of Aurangzeb, the disintegration of the Mughal Empire was rapid.  Delhi, the seat of power of the Mughals, gave way to Bengal as the centre of political importance in India. It can be ascertained from the fact that the British win over Siraj ud Daula in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, which took place just 50 years after death of Aurangzeb, laid the foundation of the British Empire in India. During the period, Bengal was ruled by the Nawabs with their capital at Murshidabad. Though nominally governors or viceroys of the Mughals, the Nawabs were independent heads of state for all practical purposes. 

Siraj ud Daula became the Nawab of Bengal after the death of his grandfather Alivardi Khan who died in 1756. He was the son of latter's youngest daughter. This was not liked by his near relations including his mother’s eldest sister, Ghasiti Begum, and his cousin Shaukat Jung who went all length to conspire against him.  In addition Siraj ud Daula found in Mir Jafar, the Commander-in-Chief of the army, a formidable enemy.

Though inexperienced and lacking decision making power, Siraj-ud-Daulah became successful in overcoming these challenges by killing Shaukat Jung in October 1756. Ghasiti Begum was rendered powerless by the confiscation of her wealth. Mir Jafar was replaced by Mir Madan as the commander of the army.

Siraj ud Daula, the then Nawab of Bengal, resented to the interference by the East India Company in his province. He was also livid with the company’s abuse of the commercial privileges which was granted by the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar under the firman of 1717.

The ‘Black Hole’ was a tragic incident that happened in the run-up to the Battle of Plassey. The incident served as casus belli for the invasion by the British on Murshidabad.

With the worsening of the relations between the Bengal Nawab and the English, the latter hatched a conspiracy with Mir Jafar. The battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757, resulting in the defeat of Siraj-ud-Daulah who fled from the battlefield. He was, however, captured and put to death by the orders of Miran, the son of Mir Jafar who was now made the Nawab of Bengal.

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

Lord Wellesley was appointed Governor General of Bengal in 1798 at the age of 37. One of the top British rulers in India, he devised strategies to establish British paramountcy in India. He ranks among the highs of Lord Clive, Lord Dalhousie and Warren Hastings. When it comes to achievements, he is a cut above the rest of the British rulers in India.

During his tenure of seven years, Lord Wellesley became successful in defeating the adversaries of the English Company. Jettisoning the non-intervention policy, he applied the system of Subsidiary Alliance with a missionary zeal. Under the Subsidiary Alliance system, the Indian ruler, who entered into this alliance, was to surrender a part of his territories or give money for the maintenance of a subsidiary force of the British needed for the defence of the state. The subsidiary state had also to surrender its external relations to the Company and accept a British resident at the capital.

The Indian states and rulers who entered into Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance System were Mysore, Hyderabad, Tanjore, Berar, Awadh, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bharatpur, Macheri, Bundi, and the Peshwa.

During his rule, the Fourth Mysore War took place in 1799 resulting in the defeat of and killing of Tipu Sultan. The Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-04) witnessed the defeat of Sindhia, the Bhonsle and the Holkar which dealt a body blow the Maratha power in India.

Another feather in Bihar's crown: Remains of another university found

Bihar, which boasts of being home to the ancient universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila, can now add another laurel to its past glory. The architectural remains of another university have been found at the Buddhist monastery site of Telhara in Nalanda district of the state. 

Telhara has been referred to by the 7th century AD Chinese traveller Heuen Tsang who visited India to obtain the copies of Buddhist scriptures. He has mentioned Telhara as "Teleadaka" in his account. 

The archeologists are of the opinion that Teleadaka, also known as "Tiladhak" university, was established in 5th century during the Gupta period.

Battle of Buxur

The historical importance of the Battle of Buxar lies in that it firmly established the position of the British East India Company as the new and prominent power. It was fought on 22nd October in 1764 between the English and the combined armies of Mir Qasim ( the nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula ( the nawab of Awadh) and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II. The battle resulted in the defeat of the allied forces.

The Battle of Buxur confirmed the position of the English as the virtual masters of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Awadh was placed at the mercy of the British.  With the passage of time the British became the masters of whole of India.

Ramsay Muir remarks, "Buxar finally riveted the shackles of Company's rule upon Bengal." In the opinion of Sir James Stephen, “The battle of Buxar deserves far more credit than the battle of Plassey as the origin of the British power in India.”

Alamgir II (1754-59)

Alamgir II, the second son of former Mughal emperor Jahandar Shah (reigned 1712–13), was raised to the throne in 1754 by his wazir Ghazi-ud-Din Imad-ul-Mulk after dethroning his predecessor Ahmad Shah.

Known as Aziz-ud-Din before he ascended the throne at the age of 55 years, Alamgir II had had practically no experience of administration and warfare as he had spent almost all his life in jail. Such a ruler cannot be expected to exert his independence and he became a virtual prisoner in the hands of his wazir Ghazi-ud-Din who was now donning the mantle of Sayyid brothers who raised and dethroned some Mughal emperors at their will.

An unprincipled Ghazi-ud-Din unsuccessfully tried to form an anti-Maratha coalition. During Alamgir’s reign the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India for the fourth time in 1756. Delhi was "slandered and its unhappy people again subjected to pillage".

Alamgir II’s tried to free himself from the control of Imad-ul-Mulk. This worsened the relationship between them. Consequently the Mughal emperor was put to death in 1759 by the latter’s orders. Alamgir II was trapped to visit a saint by the associates of Imad-ul-Mulk and was stabbed to death by Balabash Khan, one of the Wazir's assassins. The pathetic condition of a Mughal emperor can be gauged from the fact that his naked corpse was thrown down the banks of the river Jamuna.