Akbar's Religious Policy

Akbar (1555-1605), the greatest of the Mughal emperors, was a contemporary of Queen Elizabeth I and is known for his rejection of bigotry. He was firmly of the view that an empire can last only on a basis of complete toleration.

Born in Umarkot into a Sunni Muslim family in 1542, Akbar had been brought up in an atmosphere where he came into contact with conflicting religious influences. Sufism also had an impact on him and he made it a point to visit the famous shrine of Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti at Ajmer every year from 1562, and continued this practice for eighteen long years.

Formation of Akbar’s religious views in some part was determined by the influence of his Rajput wives and his Hindu officials like Man Singh, Todarmal and Birbal. Scholars like Faizi and his brother Abul Fazal and the Bhakti movement of the sixteenth century also helped in moulding his religious views.

Subsequently In 1578, Akbar took the step of converting the Ibadatkhana into a “Parliament of Religions’. He became convoked that for a fruitful discussion on  religious matters there was a need for a broad base. He threw Ibadatkhana open to Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians and Christians.

In 1582, Akbar created an order known as Din-I-Ilahi ("the religion of God") . Whether Akbar tried to found a religion in the form of Din-I-Ilahi is a topic of debate among the historians.

Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta

Mudrarakshasa (The Minister Signet’s Ring) is a 4th century AD Sanskrit drama written by Vishakhadatta, who is also credited with the authorship of Devichandragupta. It describes the overthrow of the Nandas ruling the Magadhan empire by the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya who was aided in this endevour by Kautilya also called variously as Chanakya and Vishnugupta.

There is no unanimity among the authorities on the date of Mudrarakshasa. However, majority of them are in favour of assigning the composition of this Sanskrit work to 4^th-5^th centuries AD. The Minister Signet’s Ring centers around the schemes of the wily Chankya to frustrate the plots of Raksasa, the minister of Dhana Nanda, the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty. Consequently Chankya was able to place Chandragupta on the throne of Patliputra (modern day Patna), the capital of Magadh.

Though the plot of Mudrarakshasa is exceedingly complicated, Vishakhadatta has been able to unravel the story with great skill.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak: First Muslim Ruler of Delhi

Though he ruled for only four years, Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s main claim to fame rests on his being the first Muslim ruler of Delhi. He was the founder of the Slave Dynasty, the first of the five Muslim dynasties, known as Delhi Sultanate. He is also famous as the builder of Qutb Minar in Delhi, a signature monument in the capital of India. The monument is located in Mehrauli where he laid the foundation of the first so-called 'seven cities' of medieval Delhi.

When Muhammad of Ghur died in 1206, Qutb-ud-din, who was his slave (Mamluk), assumed the title of Sultan and became the ruler of Indian territories won by his master. The dynasty which he founded came to be known as Mamluk Dynasty (Slave Dynasty). He belonged to the Aibak tribe.

Death of Qutb-ud-din Aibak

A Turk and native of Turkistan, Qutb-ud-din Aibak died in 1210 of a sudden fall from a horse at Lahore while playing polo (chaugan). He lies buried in a tomb in Lahore.  

Qutb-ud-din Aibak's Tomb in Lahore / Image source 

According to the contemporary Muslim historians, he was famous for his generosity and earned the sobriquet of lakh-baksh (giver of lakhs).      

Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpra

Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpra located in Ajmer in Rajasthan was initially a temple. It was converted into a mosque by Qutab-ud-ding Aibak.

Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpra / Image Source

Indra: The Most Powerful Vedic God

Going by the number of hymns addressed to the deities in the Vedic period, the atmospheric god Indra is the clear winner. Apart from weather god, he was also war god. Sharing several characteristics of the Greek Zeus and the Germanic Thor, Indra has been variously described as a winner (jitendra), efficient car warrior (rathestha), Shatakratu (possessing a hundred powers) and meghavahana (rider of cloud), and  a Somadrinker (Somapa). 

Indra’s father is Dyaus (heaven). Indrani or Sachi (energy) is his wife. He destroyed the forts (pura) of his enemies, and was accordingly known as Purandara (the breaker of forts). He killed the evil cloud demon Vritra and therefore, is called Varitrahan (slayer of Vrita). Indra is called by the name Śakra in Buddhist scriptures.

Indra is associated with thunderstorms. Like Zeus and Thor, his hand bore the thunderbolt (Vajra), which was used by him to destroy his enemies.

Another interesting facet to Indra’s personality is his fondness for feasting and drinking. This has earned him the epithet of Somapa (a Soma drinker).

By the end of the Middle ages, Indra’s importance began to wane and there were few temples dedicated to him. 

Mahmud Gawan, Scholar, Statesman and Administrator

Madarasa of Mahmud-Gawan

Mahmud Gawan, who had served the Bahmani kingdom of South India in different posts in the reigns of three successive rulers, was an erudite scholar, statesman and a great administrator. A trader by profession, he was born in Iran and came to Bidar in 1453 A.D.

Mahmud Gawan was synonymous with honesty, loyalty and simplicity. He was given the title of Mallik-Ul-Tujjar. A skillful military leader, he brought the Bahmani kingdom to its greatest extent.

A strong proponent of literacy among the people, Mahmud Gawan is credited with the establishment of many schools and colleges. Chief among them is the college which he got built in Bidar. This three storied building, known as Mahmud Gawan's Madarasa, with its massive walls and grand minarets is one of the chief attractions in Bidar (in Karnataka) today.

Mahmud Gawan fell prey to the intrigues of the Decanni nobles who were jealous of his rise and instigated the Bahmani Sultan Muhammad Shah III who, in a drunken state, ordered his execution on 5^th April, 1481.

Nizam Shahi Dynasty of Ahmadnagar

Ahmadnagar Sultanate, known more famously as the Nizam Shahi Dynasty, was one of the five independent states that arose on the debris of the Bahmani Sultanate. The Sultanate derives its name from Ahmadnagar, the seat of the power, which is 120 km northeast of Pune and located in the state of Maharashtra.

Nizam Shahi dynasty was founded by Malik Ahmad, son of Hasan Nizamul Mulk, (wazir) Prime Minister of the Bahmani kingdom after Mahmud Gawan’s execution in 1481. Mahmud Gawan was a renowned Islamic scholar who rose in ranks to become the wazir of the Bahmani kingdom. Malik Ahmad, who was appointed to the governorship of Junnar, asserted his independence in 1490. He transferred his seat of government from Junnar to Ahmadnagar which he founded in 1494. During his rule Daulatabad became part of the Ahmadnagar kingdom in 1499.

After Ahmad’s death in 1510, he was succeeded by his son Burhan, a lad of seven years at that time. Burhan, the first of the Nizam Shahis to assume the title of Nizam Shah, ruled for forty-three years. His interests were ably served by his able minister Mukammal Khan Dakhimi. Ahmadnagar, during his reign, changed sides and joined coalition with the kingdoms of   Bidar, Bijapur. Golcunda and Berar and Vijayanagar against one another. He joined a coalition of Vijayanagar ruler against Bijapur in 1550. After his death in 1553 Burhan was succeeded by his son Husain Shah Nizami who joined the Deccan Muslim Sultanates against the Vijayanagar in the famous Battle of Talikota in 1665. The great city of Hampi, the seat of the Vijayanagar empire, was sacked after the defeat of the Vijayanagar Raya. 

Husain died in 1665 and was succeeded by his son Murtada Nizam Shah I (1565-88). During his rule, the Imad Shahi dynasty came to an end with the annexation of Berar to the Ahmadnagar kingdom in 1574. However, after this, Murtada lost his mental balance and began to consider his own son Miran to be his adversary. On the other hand, Miran conspired against his father and suffocated him to death while he was in his bed. This happened in 1588. Miran did not reign long and was succeeded by Ismail (1589-91) who ruled for two years. His reign was marked by the struggle for power between the Shias and the Mahdawi sect. Ismail’s father , Burhan Nizam Shah II, defeated his son’s army and ascended the Ahmadnagar throne. Burhan suffered a series of defeats at the hands of Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Adil Shahi dynasty. He was also unsuccessful in recovering Chaul from the Portuguese. It was during Burhan’s reign that Burhan  I – Ma’athir was compiled.

Burhan Nizam Shah II was succeeded by his son Ibrahim whose rule lasted for only four months. Confusion reigned supreme in the Ahmadnagar kingdom as there were four claimants to the throne. While one of them was supported by Chand Bibi, daughter of Husain Nizam Shah and widow of Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur, Miyan Manjhu threw his weight with another. Miyan Manjhu asked for help from Mughal emperor Akbar’s son prince Murad who responded by besieging the Ahmadnagar fort. Chand Bibi fought gallantly but in the end in 1596 she was forced to enter into an agreement with the Mughals, ceding Berar to the Mughal empire. Peace, however, did not last long and the Mughals again laid siege to the capital. It was during the second attack that Chand Bibi was either murdered or took poison and lost her life (1600).

However, the sagging fortunes of the Ahmadnagar empire were revived by Ahmandnagar’s Abyssinian minster Malik Ambar. He was a thrice manumitted Abyssinian (Ethiopian) slave who is known in the medieval period as a great statesman and able administrator. Deciding not to surrender to the Mughal might, he raided the Mughal territory with great effect by means of guerrilla tactics. He installed Murtaza II as ruler of Nizam Shahi dynasty with his capital at Parenda. Malik Ambar’s gallant resistance to the Mughal forces ended when he was defeated by Mughal Prince Khurram first in 1617 and again in 1621. Applauding his role in this victory, Prince Khurram was given by his father Jahangir, the fourth Mughal Emperor, the title of Shah Jahan (King of the World). Malik Ambar’s death in 1626 was the last nail in the Ahmadnagar Sultanate's coffin. Murtada III, the last Nizam Shahi ruler, was captured by Aurangzeb during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1636. The Nizam Shahi territories were divided between the Mughals and the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur.

Aurangzeb and Mughal War of Succession

According to some historians Kankwari Fort within the Sariska National Park in Alwar is the place where Dara Shikoh was held captive by Aurangzeb 

As soon as the fifth Mughal emperor Shah Jahan fell ill in September, 1657, it sparked a deadly war of succession among his four sons – Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. In this fratricidal war of succession, his two daughters Jahanara and Raushanara sided with Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb respectively. 

At the time of the emperor’s sickness, his eldest son Dara was at his bedside in Agra where he resided at the court. Shah Jahan was very fond of Dara and in normal circumstances the latter would have been his successor. Dara was a man of liberal persuasions and spent time in scholarly pursuits. This made him the adversary of the orthodox elements in Islam. Though intelligent and brave, Shuja, then governor of Bengal, loved the life of ease and was pleasure seeking. The youngest, Murad, was the governor of Gujarat. He was somewhat liberal compared to Aurangzeb but was devoid of the qualities needed for leadership. He was also addicted to hard drinking. Aurangzeb was the ablest of the brothers. Apart from being a person of intense energy, he claimed the Mughal throne as zealous champion of Sunni orthodoxy. 

When Shah Jahan fell ill, the three absentee brothers suspected that their father had already died and the news had been suppressed by Dara.

Consequently, Shuja proclaimed himself emperor at Rajmahal, the then capital of Bengal and marched with an army and fleet towards Agra. He reached Benares on January 24, 1658 and was defeated by the army under Sulaiman Shikoh, son of Dara at Bahadurpu.

Murad did the same at Ahmedabad on 5^th December, 1557 and struck coins and had the Khutba read in his own name. Aurangzeb entered into an alliance with Murad. Under the agreement the empire will be partitioned whereas Punjab, Afghanistan, Kashmir and Sindh was to be given to Murad apart form the one-third of the booty. The terms of the agreement were solemnized in the name of God and prophet.

In February 1658, Murad’s forces joined Aurangzeb near Ujjain. Their combined forces signally defeated the imperial forces, sent to contain them under the leadership of Raja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur and Qasim Khan, at the battle of Dharmat, fourteen miles south-south-west of Ujjain, on 15^th April 1658. The proud wife of Jaswant Singh refused to give him shelter because he fled from the battle-field.

After Dharmat, Aurangzeb and Murad crossed the Chambal river and were on their way to Agra. As they reached the plains of Samugarh, eight miles form Agra, they were confronted with Mughal forces under Dara. In the battle of Samugarh, which took place on 29^th May, Dara was decisively defeated and he fled from Agra. He was chased by the Mughal forces from place to place. At last he was executed in September 1659 on the charge of heresy and infidelity.

Soon after his victory at the battle of Samugarh, Aurangzeb marched to Agra and took possession of the Agra fort on the 8^th June 1658. All efforts by Shah Jahan for an amicable settlement for accession to throne ended in vain. Shah Jahan was deprived of throne and was made a prisoner by Aurangzeb who died there on 22^nd January, 1666 at the age of seventy –four. 

From Agra Aurangzeb set out for Delhi on the 13^th June 1658. On the way he made Murad fall into a trap. Murad was apprehended on June 25, 1658 and was kept first in the fort of Salimgarh whence he was removed to the Gwalior fort and was executed on the 4^th December, 1661 on the charge of murdering Ali Naqi who was Murad’s one time Divan.

Already after Murad’s capture, Aurangzeb had crowned himself as emperor in Delhi on 21^st July 1658 in Sheesh Mahal in Delhi's Shalimar  Bagh and assumed the title of Alamgir. But his formal coronation took place on June 5, 1659.

As motioned earlier Shuja was defeated by Dara’s son Suleiman Shikoh, it was now turn of Aurangzeb to get rid of him. Aurangzeb routed Shuja at Khajwah near Allahabad on the January 5, 1659. The defeated prince fled to Arakan where he was killed by the Arkanerese in May 1660. Prince Muhammad, Aurangzeb’s eldest son, who sided with Shuja for a time, was imprisoned for life and died in 1676.