Caste system in Vedic Period

There was already a class division in the tribal structure of the Aryans when they entered India. However the social divisions became more prominent in the Vedic period due to the racial discriminations between the Aryans and non-Aryans, who after being defeated by the former were treated as Dasas, Dasyus and shudras. Gradually the tribal society of the Aryans were divided into three classes or groups –the priest (Brahmanas), warrior (Kshatriyas) and peasant (vaishyas).

The purusha shukta or creation Hymn of the Rigveda (X, 90, 12) says that Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras originated respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Purusha or Creator. This hymn is taken to be the root of caste system in India. But initially it was varna (literary means colour) and referred to the person of a particular profession, and not of particular birth.

But in the hymns of the Rigveda rigid restriction typical of castle in its mature form is not evident. There is no trace of any restriction on marriage, food and drinks. There were different classes and professions but none, not even the priestly or warrior classes were hereditary. Any person, irrespective of his Varna, who possessed the requisite qualifications, could officiate as a priest and anyone could join the army. In one Rigvedic family the father, mother and the son followed three different vacations viz, those of a poet, a grinder of corn and a physician. Thus if in one family the occupations of the son, the father and the mother were different, a hereditary caste system based on different kinds of avocations were surely absent in the Vedic age.

Chauth and sardeshmukhi: Two important taxes in the Maratha taxation system

Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the two most important taxes in the taxation system of the powerful Maratha state founded by brilliant Maratha leader Shivaji (1627-1680). 

According to Mahadev Govind Ranade, a famous Indian scholar and freedom fighter, chauth was a military tribute that was levied as a quid pro quo for protection against the invasion of a third power. But eminent historian Jadunath Sarkar does not ascribe to this view. According to him, chauth, 25% tax on revenue or produce, was realized from the alien territories to save themselves from the unwelcome presence of the Maratha soldiers and civil underlings. Shivaji was not under obligation to guard the territory from foreign invasion or internal disorder. 

According to another authority S. G Sardesai, chauth was a military tribute paid by the conquered or hostile territories. Since Shivaji was the hereditary sardeshmukh (Chief Headmand) of Maharashtra, he demanded an additional levy of 10 percent known as sardeshmukhi. Historian Ishwari Prasad is of the opinion that desai is the corrupt form of the Sanskrit word deshswami also called deshmukh. The sardeshmukh stood above many desais, and deshmukhs were under the control of the sardeshmukh. Sardeshmukh was paid for his services and this payment was called sardeshmukhi. Shivaji claimed to be the hereditary sardeshmukh of his country.

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat

         Champaner’s Jama Masjid, built by Mahmud Begada/Wikimedia Commons

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat was founded by Zafar Khan, who was appointed governor of Gujarat in 1391 by the ruler of Delhi Sultanate, with the title Muzaffar Khan. Zafar Khan was son of Sadharan, a Jat convert to Islam. Firuz Shah Tughluq was married to Sadharan’s sister. Muzaffar Khan remained loyal to Delhi sultanate and was able to suppress the rebellions of Muslim and Hindu chieftains. Though deposed by his son Tatar Khan in 1403-4, he was restored to the throne by his uncle, Shams Khan Dandani, who poisoned Tatar Khan.

Muzaffar proclaimed his independence as Muzaffer Shah in 1407. After his death in 1411 the throne passed on to Shihabuddin Ahmad Shah who ruled for thirty-one years. During his reign, Ahmad Shah (1411-42), who was son of the dead Tatar Khan, was engaged in continuous warfare and consolidated the Gujarat Sultanate. In 1411 he founded a new walled city which he named Ahmedabad. He built the Jama Masjid in Ahmedabad in 1424. 

Ahmad Shah was succeeded by Muhammad Shah (1442-51), who was followed by Qutubuddin Ahmad Shah II (1451-59). Fath Khan, who became ruler of Gujarat Sultanate at a young age of thirteen as Mahmud Shah (1459-1511), is considered to be the greatest ruler of Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat. Mahmud Shah, also known as Mahmud Begada, died in November 1511. Mahmud was said to have a long beard that reached his girdle, and he tied his very long moustaches behind his head. Mahmud’s successor, Muzaffar II died in 1526. Bahadur Shah who ruled from 1526 to 1537 was the last important ruler of the dynasty.

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Akbar in 1573. Muzaffar Shah III was the last ruler of the Gujarat Sultanate.

Lord Dufferin (1884-88)

Lord Dufferin was appointed the Viceroy of India in 1884. He succeeded Lord Ripon who ruled from 1880 to 1884. Dufferin’s administration in India saw the Third Burmese War in 1885, resulting in the annexation of upper Burma. As a result, his viceroyalty saw the final extinction of Burma as an independent power.

Another event which was of utmost consequences for the future was the foundation of the Indian National Congress (INC) by A. O. Hume and S. N. Banerjee in 1885.

But in the North-west, the Panjdeh incident on the border of Afghanistan brought Britain to the verge of war with Russia. But a s result of the possibility of this war, the total strength of the Indian army was raised.

Iron Pillar of Meharauli: A technical Achievement of Ancient India

Iron Pillar of Meharauli in Delhi is a memorial dedicated to a king called Chandra, who has been identified with Chandra Gupta II (c 376-415) of the Gupta dynasty. Originally erected on a hill in Ambala, Iron Pillar now stands the near the renowned Qutab Minar, one of the greatest monuments of Muslim India. Over twenty three feet high, the pillar consists of a single piece of iron. Though produced some 1500 years ago, the Iron Pillar of Meharauli shows no sign of rusting. This is testimony to the high level of metallurgical skill of ancient India.

Nalanda university as related by Hiuen-Tsang

Established in 5th century AD, Nalanda was a famous university of ancient India. During the rule of Harsha, the fame of university reached far and wide. Under the Pala ruler Dharampal, the glory of the university reached its zenith. The renowned Chinese traveler Hiuen-Tsang who came to India during the rule of Harshvardhan and studied at Nalanda, has mentioned the Nalanda university in glowing terms. From his accounts it can be said that the university was a great centre of education and was famous even in far-off countries. According to Hiuen-Tsang, the number of students at the university was ten thousand and the faculty consisted of great minds drawn from different parts of India.

Separate buildings were used for the study of the students. Some buildings had the sitting capacity of ten thousand students. The library of the university was very big and consisted of three buildings, one of them nine storied.

Admission to Nalanda university was a tough affair. The rules of the university were tough and had to be obeyed. Students were not required to pay any fee. The expenses of the university were met by the donations given by the rulers and the rich.

Remembering Guru Arjan on his death anniversary

Today is the death anniversary of Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru of Sikhism. Guru Arjan died in 1606 in Lahore (Pakistan). 

Guru Arjan was executed by orders of fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir, who ruled from 1605 to 1627. He was charged with treason because he had given shelter to Prince Khusrau at Tarn Taran, who had rebelled against his father Jahangir for the Mughal throne. Khusrau was captured, confined and subsequently killed by Shah Jahan (fifth Mughal emperor) in 1622. 

Guru Arjan was at first fined by the Imperial Mughal power, but as he refused to pay the fine he was sentenced to death.