Indian History

Of all the secular literary sources on the history of the Mauryas, the single most important source is Arthasashtra , a treatise on polity, ascribed to Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chankya . Kautilya was the minister of Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya who overthrew the last ruler of the oppressive Nanda Dynasty of Magadh.  Arthashastra was discovered in 1905  by  R. Sama Shashtri,  the  Sanskrit scholar and librarian at Oriental Research Institute (ORI) in Mysore.  Oriental Research Institute (ORI) in Mysore was founded by Mysore’s Wodeyar rulers in 1891.  Arthashastra  is a comprehensive source of information on statecraft and public administration. Divided into fifteen adhikaranas (sections) and 180 prukaranas (chapters), this text on polity is written in both prose and verse in Sanskrit. There is considerable debate on the exact dating of Arthasashtra. Since there is no mention of Chandragupta or Mauryan rulers of Patlipu...

The Buddha has two kinds of disciples – lay worshippers ( upasakas ) and monks ( bhikkus or shramanas ). The latter were organized into the Sangha or congregation. The membership of the Sangha was open to all, male or female above twenty years of age and who were free from leprosy, consumption and other infections diseases. However, slaves, soldiers and debtors were not allowed to enter the Sangha without the permission of their superior. The admission of Prajapati Gautami , the widowed stepmother of the Buddha, to the Sangha, at the innstance of Ananda , one of chief disciples and consatant companion of the Buddha, marked the beginninng of an order of Buddhist nun. The Buddha had reservations on women's entry innto Sangha and even predicted that allowing women to become nun will make the survival of his teachings difficult. Anyone from the age of eight might become a member of Sangha. However in order to become full member of the Order, one has to be at least 20 years old....

Soon after ascending the Mughal throne, Jahangir , the fourth Mughal Emperor, allowed a chain with bells to be hung outside his palace to enable petitioners to bring their grievances to the notice of the emperor himself. He promulgated twelve edicts or ordinances for the general welfare and better government of the empire. Although these ordinances confirmed Jahangir’s desire to continue his father Akbar’s liberal policies, in practice they remained ineffective. At the beginning of his reign in 1606, Jahangir has to face the rebellion of his son Khusrau in Lahore. Khusrau has the blessings of some of the powerful nobles of the empire. Khusrau’s rebellion was personally suppressed by Jahangir. Khusrau was captured, blinded, confined and subsequently killed by Khurram (name of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal Emperor, before his ascension to the Mughal Throne) in 1622. The fifth Sikh Guru Arjan , who had given shelter to Khusrau at Taran Taran, was fined. When he refused to pay the fine, ...

Ranakpur Jain Temples When Jainism, the “religion of the Jinas (Conquerors)” came into being in the 6th century BC, the Hindu religious texts were all in Sanskrit while those of Buddhism were in Pali which is still the religious language of the Buddhists in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and South-east Asia. The Jainas however, opted for Prakrit , though at different places texts were written in local languages as well. A large number of Ashokan edicts are in Prakrit. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, himself preached in ardha Magadhi  ( Half Magdhi ). Secondly, the Jain philosophy has certainly enriched India’s thought. The five vows ahimsa , satya , asateya , aprigraha and brahmacharya are relevant even today. In the early centuries of the Christian Era, the Jains (like their Buddhist counterparts) constructed stupas adorned with railings, gateways with carved figures and pillars. The image of a Tirthankara ( ford maker , one of the 24 teachers of Jainism) from Lohanipur ( Patna )...

In 1303 AD, Ala-ud-din Khilji attacked Chittor in Rajasthan. Chittor, the capital of Mewar , was controlled by Guhila Rajputs. The geographical location of Chittor kept it immune to external invasion. Being an imperialist Ala-ud-din thought of sending an expedition to Chittor, ruled by Rana Ratan Singh at that time. However according to several Rajput sources and Malik Muhammad Jayasi ’s Padmavat, the principal reason of Ala-ud-din’s invasion of Chittor was to acquire Rata Singh’s queen Padmini who was of exquisite beauty. The story of Padmini does not seem plausible because it is not explicitly mentioned in any contemporary sources. Even the celebrated poet and writer Amir Khusrau , who accompanied Ala-ud-din during this expedition, does not mention anything about the episode. Durig the siege of Chittor the Rajputs showed exemplary valour. Their two brave leaders, named Gora and Badal , showed utmost bravery. But the army of Chittor was no match for the organized strength of Delh...

Ala-ud-din was the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate (the combined period of five dynasties from 1206 to 1526). He succeeded to the throne in 1296 by killing his uncle and father-in-law Jalal-ud-din Firuz, who founded the Khilji Dynasty in 1290 by murdering Kaiquabad, the last ruler of the Ilabari Dynasty, known more popularly as the Slave Dynasty.  Ala-ud-din was an imperialist. With his accession begins, as Sir Wolseley Haig says, “the imperial period of the Sultanate”. During the time of Ala-ud-din, Ranthambhore was ruled by the chivalrous Rajput chief Hamir Deva. An expedition sent by the Sultan in 1299 met with only limited success. The Rajputs could not be subdued completely. So Ala-ud-din himself marched to Ranthambhore and captured it in 1301. Hamir Deva was put to death. Ranmal, the minster who betrayed his master Hamir, was also killed by Ala-ud-din’s order.  However, according to Hammir Mahakakavya , written by the Jaina poet Nayachandra Suri...

Today is the 135th birth anniversary of Vallabhbhai Patel was a great freedom fighter whose contribution to Indian independence is exemplary. Popularly known as Iron Man , he marked his entry into politics by participating in the Kheda Satyagraha launched in 1918 to secure exemption for the cultivators from payment of land tax for the crops that had failed. In 1922 he stared another peasant movement in Bardoli taluka of Gujarat, popularly known as the Bardoli Satyagraha . In recognition of his great success in organizing the Bardoli movement, Mahatma Gandhi called him Sardar .  Vallabhbhai Patel actively participated in all the movements launched under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. After Independence in 1947, he became India’s deputy Prime Minister. His portfolios included Home, the Indian States and Information and Broadcasting. The crowing achievement of his political career was the integration of some 562 Princely States and domains in the India Union.