Samprati

Samprati

A grandson of 3rd Mauryan Emperor Ashoka,  Samprati (r. 224 – 215 BCE) was a Mauryan Emperor. He was the son of Kunala who was blind by birth. 

After Asoka's death in 232 BC, the territory of Mauryan empire was divided into the eastern and western parts. Sampriti and Dasaratha succeeded Asoka in the western and eastern parts respectively.

Samprati had embraced Jainism. He was converted to the religion by Jain monk Suhastin.

His contribution to Jainism is similar to that of Asoka to Buddhism. After a rule of nine years Samprati was followed by his son Salisuka who ruled for 13 years. 

Junagadh (Girnar) Inscription of Rudradaman

Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman / Image Credit

The Junagadh rock inscription of the Saka ruler Rudradaman is a eulogy inscribed on a rock located near Girnar hill near Junagadh in Gujarat. Composed in about 150 AD, the inscription,  which is the earliest inscription written in Sanskrit prose, refers to his reconstruction of a great dam or Sudarshan reservoir for irrigation which was excavated by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Chandragupta Maurya in the provinces of Anarta and Saurashtra (Gujarat). 

Written in the Brahmi script , this inscription is engraved on a rock which contains one of the fourteen Asokan Major Rock edicts and another inscription of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta. The inscription was first translated in 1837 by scholar and Orientalist James Prinsep, an official of the Calcutta Mint and secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

 

Military Conquests of Chandragupta Maurya

 

                              Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE / Wikimedia Commons

Ruling from 324 to 297 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the first and one of the greatest empires that appeared in Indian subcontinent. 

The scarcity of sources dealing with the military conquests of Chandragupta Maurya makes it difficult for us to ascertain whether he first overthrew Mahapadma Nanda, the unpopular last Nanda ruler, or drove out the Greeks from the North-West part of India.

From the inferences from the Jaina and Greek sources, it seems that liberation of Punjab was the first military activity by Chandragupta Maurya who felt emboldened by the confusion in the Greek empire that followed Macedonian ruler Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BC in Babylon. Greek writer Justin writes about the prevailing condition of the time, “India, after the death of Alexander, had shaken, as it were, the yoke of servitude from its neck and put his Governors to death. The architect of this liberation was Sandrocottus.”

Chandragupta Maurya is described as Sandrocottus in the Greek sources.

Chandragupta Maurya / Image Credit

After driving out the Greeks, Chandragupta turned his attention to the overthrow of the Nanda dynasty that was ruling Pataliputra at that time. Again, we are faced with the scarcity of accounts about this conquest. From the Jaina work Parisisthaparvan (12th-century Sanskrit work by Hemachandra, the court poet of the Chalukyas of Anhilwara) we come to know that Chankya, the able Brahmin advisor of Chandragupta, aided him in the conquest of Pataliputra by making him allying with a neighbouring king Parvataka. The combined armies of both the powers dealt the body-blow to the Nanda empire. According to the Buddhist text Milinda-panho which dates from sometime between 100 BC and 200 AD, Nanda army was led by its general Bhaddasala.

After the defeat of the Nanda power, Chandragupta declared himself the ruler of Magadha. He, however, again embarked on a policy of fresh military expeditions thereby bringing different parts of India under his suzerainty.

War with Seleucus I Nicator

A war with Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals, became inevitable for Chandragupta as the former after his master’s death became ruler of Babylon and tried to recover Alexander’s Indian provinces which had become part of the Mauryan empire.  However, Seleucus was defeated and entered into an alliance by ceding the Satrapies of Archosia (Kandahar) and the Paropanisade (Kabul), together with portions of Aria (Herat) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan). Under the terms of the alliance, the Mauryan emperor presented 500 elephants to the Greek general. According to Appian, the peace was concluded by a marriage alliance. However, the exact nature of this alliance is not known. Megasthenes was sent as ambassador to the Mauryan court to reside at Pataliputra.

Conquests of Western India and South

That western India was included in the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta can be ascertained from the Saka ruler Rudradaman I's Girnar Rock Inscription of about 150 AD which refers to his (Rudradaman I's ) reconstruction of a great dam and reservoir for irrigation which was excavated by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Chandragupta Maurya in the provinces of Anarta and Saurashtra (Gujarat).  

Chandragupta further extended his boundaries into the Konkan in Maharashtra where Asoka’s Rock Edict has been found at Sopara. Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, had excavated several edicts and inscriptions throughout the length and breadth of his kingdom. Since Bindusara, who was the son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya, is not known to have made any conquest and Asoka only conquered the Kalinga kingdom of Odisha, it can be said with certainty that Konkan was annexed to the Mauryan empire by Chandragupta.

Same can be said of Chandragupta’s expansion of his territories beyond the Vindhyas. The Rock Edicts II and XIII of Asoka state that the Mauryan empire shares its border with those of the southern kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras.

Mahalakshmi Temple at Doddagaddavalli

 Mahalakshmi Temple at Doddagaddavalli / Image Credit

A ASI protected monument, Mahalakshmi Temple at Doddagaddavalli in the Hassan district of Karnataka is a 12th-century Hindu shrine built in 1113 CE by a wealthy merchant Kalhana Ravuta and his wife Sahaja Devi during the reign of Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana  (r. 1108–1152 CE).

In 2020 Kali idol in the Mahalakshmi Temple was damaged.  

12th Century Hoysala Amrutesvara Temple

Amrutesvara Temple / Image Credit 

Located in Amruthapura, around 67 kilometres north of Chikmagalur, the Amrutesvara Temple was built in 1196 CE by the commander Amrutheshwara Dandanayaka, during the rule of Veera Ballala II (r. 1173–1220 CE), the Hoysala King. 

Located near the reservoir of the Bhadra River, this 12th century temple is a fine specimen of Hoysala architecture.    

Hucheshwara Temple, Halebid

Located close to Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebid in Karnataka, Hucheshwara temple is a Hoysala period shrine. As the temple is crumbling  the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is carrying out conservation and maintenance work. 

Moinuddin Chisti and His Disciples

The founder of the Chisti Sufi order in India, Muinud-din-Chisti was also known as Khwaja Ajmeri. Headquartered in Ajmer in Rajasthan, Chisti Sufi order attracted devotees from both Muslims and Hindus and continue to do so. Moinuddin Chishti came from Sistan with the Muslim invasion, eventually arriving in Ajmer where he died in 1236.

Thousands of Sufi devotees travel to the shrine of Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer for the annual Urs.

Disciples of Moinuddin Chisti 

Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki

The most important disciple of Moinuddin Chisti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki popularized the Chisti order in Delhi. He had come to Delhi some time after 1221. He died in 1235. His tomb is in Mehrauli in Delhi and it is said that Qutub Minar takes its name from this Sufi saint. 

Hamiduddin Nagauri

Another prominent disciple of Moinuddin Chisti, Hamiduddin Nagauri was instrumental in initiating Chisti order in Nagaur in Rajasthan.

Guru Nanak

This year marks the 555th birth anniversary of Guru Nanak [1469-1539], the founder of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion born in 15th-century. Guru Nanak preached harmony between Hinduism and Islam.  

The followers of Sikhisism must carry five articles all the time. They are known as the Five Ks: the Kesh (uncut hair), Kara (a steel bracelet), Kanga (a wooden comb), Kaccha (cotton underwear), and Kirpan (a curved dagger).

Guru Nanak is the first Sikh Guru. Nine gurus followed him and there is no living human successor, but the Sikh holy book Guru Granth Sahib is considered the 11th and eternal.

Guru Nanak was born in a Khatri family in 1469 during the rule of Bahlul Khan Lodi, founder of the Lodi dynasty. His birth took place  at the village of Talwandi ((now called Nankana Sahib), thirty-five miles south-west of Lahore and situated in the Nankana Sahib district in the Punjab province of Pakistan. 

Nanak's father was a Patwari (accountant). Nanak was given formal education and employed as an assistant to his brother-in-law, Jai Rama, who was in the service of Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Lahore, at Sultanpur Lodi in Punjab. 

At Sultanpur Lodi Nanak began his religious career preaching a faith based on equality and one God. He wandered over the country and even beyond as far as Makkah and Medina. He died in 1539 in Kartarpur in Pakistan. 

Nanak had married, lived the life of a householder and had two sons. He believed that married life was not a bar to spiritual progress. He preached the gospel of universal toleration and opposed caste-based distinctions and religious fanaticism. His message was one of unity of God and personal love for him. Both Hindu and Muslim were among his disciples. He nominated Angada, one of his disciples as his successor who gave unity and organisation to his followers. Gradually they became known as the Sikhs. 

The Journey of Fa-hsien to India

A native of sanxi (Shansi), Fa-hsien, also known as Faxian, was a Chinese monk who came to India on a pilgrimage tour during the reign of Chandra Gupta II ((reigned c 376-415). His motive for coming to India was to acquire authentic copies of the Buddhist scriptures and to visit the places associated with the Buddha. After his return to China he translated into Chinese the large number of Sanskrit Buddhist texts he had brought from India.

He had recorded his observations in a travelogue titled Fo-Kwo-Ki (Travels of Fa-Hien).

Being of religious nature, he gives information about temples and monasteries and the state of Buddhism in India at that time. He was so engrossed in the religious pursuits that he even doesn’t mention the name of Chandra Gupta II (376-415) of the Gupta empire though he spent some six years in India during the latter’s reign. The Buddhist canon Samyutta Nikata was translated into Chinese about 440 AD from a manuscript obtained by the pilgrim in Sri Lanka in 411. Fa-hsien was the earliest to refer to “pollution on approach” in regard to the untouchables.  

Fa-hsien traveled in India, particularly the Buddhist centres, extensively. He visited Kapilvastu (Lumbini), Bodh Gaya in Bihar, Benares (Varanasi), Kushinagar and Shravasti, all linked to events in Buddha's life. His observations are of great importance to an understanding of the period.

In 411 AD he travelled from Tamralipti (modern West Bengal) to Sri Lanka

Some of the important statements made by Fa-hsien about India are:

• The country is prosperous and the people are happy
• India is a peaceful state and one can travel from one place to the other throughout the empire without being harassed. There is no need for passport. The administration is mild. Capital punishment is not in vogue. Offenders are generally punished by fines. Crimes of serious nature, which are rare, are punished by amputation of one hand.  
• People are vegetarians. Only people of low castes and untouchables ate meat. Respectable citizens don’t consume liquor.
• Free hospitals are run by donations of pious subjects of the kingdom.
• Buddhism is in a state of flourish and Kashmir, Punjab ad Afghanistan are centres of Buddhism.
• Untouchables don’t form part of the society. The dwell outside the confines of villages in segregated localities. Before entering the villages they had to strike a piece of wood to warn others of their approach.

Alauddin Alam Shah – The Last Sayyid King

After Muhammad Shah's  death in A.D. 1445, his son, Alauddin Alam Shah (reigned 1445–51), succeeded him to the throne of the Sayyid Dynasty, the fourth in the line of five dynasties that comprised Delhi Sultanate that ruled from 1206 to 1526.

Alauddin Alam Shah was more inefficient than his father. Such was his fondness for gratification and aversion to work that he abdicated the throne in favour of Afghan Buhlul Khan Lodi (reigned 1451–89), the governor of Lahore and Sirhind, in 1451 and retired to Badaun (now in Uttar Pradesh), where he died in 1478. 

Alam Shah’s only claim to fame lies in the field of architecture. He constructed his father’s tomb which is located in the Lodhi Gardens in central Delhi.

He lies buried in a tomb in Badaun in Uttar Pradesh where his mother was also buried. The tombs of Alam Shah and his mother are an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) protected monument. 

A Short Note of Life of Vardhamana Mahavira

Lord Mahavira

Vardhamana, known to his followers as Mahavira, was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras (Ford-makers),  saviors and spiritual teachers of the dharma, in Jainism.  He is regarded as the founder of Jainism. 

A contemporary of The Buddha, Mahavira was born in village Kundandagrama near Vaishali in Bihar in a kshatriya (the warrior class) family about 599 BC. His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Jnatrikas clan and his mother Trishala was sister of Chetaka, the Licchavis king of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, who was married to Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka. Mahavira was married to Yashoda and had a daughter whose husband, Jamali, became the first disciple of Mahavira.

Though Mahavira was educated in all branches of knowledge he shied away from materialistic life. At the age of 30, when his parents were dead, he renounced his family, became an ascetic, and proceeded in search of truth. For over twelve years, he went from one place to another and led a life of torture by subjecting his body to all kinds of hardships but it was of no avail. During this period he met another ascetic, Gosala Maskariputra, who later founded the sect of Ajivikas. The Ajivika sect enjoyed its heydays during the Mauryan rule under Ashoka and his successor Dasharatha. It, however, survived until fourteenth century in south India.

In the thirteenth year of his asceticism on the tenth of Vaishakha, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama he found full enlightenment and Nirvana. From now onwards he was called Jaina or Jitendriya (one who has conquered his senses), Nirgranthas (“Free from Bonds”) and Mahavira (the brave) and his followers were named Jain. 

For the remaining thirty years Mahavira moved from one place to another in the Gangetic kingdoms and preached his religion. At the age of 72 he breathed his last at Pava, near the Magadhan capital Rajagrha in 527 BC. 

Women in Ancient India

Throughout most of ancient Indian history, the role of women was more or less confined to the home. Though there are instances where women wielded power and authority, this did not imply the common lot of the women in ancient India.

A woman was under the patriarchal authority of her parents, husband and sons. Even under Buddhism which boasted of liberal rules, a nun would be treated as subordinate to her male counterpart.

The status of women in ancient India kept on changing at different stages. During the Rig Vedic Period, women were treated equal to man.  During the Vedic period women participated in the public sacrifices alongside men. Some Vedic hymns are attributed to women. During this period, there were women rishis, and they were treated with respect and dignity.

However with the passage of time the status of women declined. 

Manu, one of the famous lawgivers of ancient India, declared that wife, like the slave, has no right to property. He dictated a woman would be dependent on her father in childhood, on her husband in youth and on her son in old age. However, some allowed a woman to own their special property (stridhana) in the form of jewellery and clothing.

In ancient Indian society a woman could find their role in religion, but could not serve the temples as priestess.

However in Vedic period the position of women was much more enhanced. Women seers are said to have composed some o the Vedic hymns. The famous discussion between Gargi and Yajnavalkya is well known. But by the beginning of the Christian era, women were declared ineligible for Vedic study. However, there are references to many references to literary works attributed to women poets and dramatists. In Tamil literature, the early poetess Avvaiyar composed works of high literary merit. Poruna-raatr-uppadai, which describes the victory of Karikala Chola in the battle at Venni near Thanjavur, has been attributed to a potter’s wife.

Sati in Ancient India 

The earliest  known Sati stone in India is an inscription engraved in A.D. 510 on a pillar found at Eran near Sagar in Madhya Pradesh. The Eran inscription mentions the wife of Goparaja, a vassal of Bhanugupta of the Gupta empire, burning herself on her husband's pyre.  The inscription mentions that his wife followed him on the pyre after his death in the battle against the Hunas.

The practice of sati was disapproved of by Bana, the court poet of Harsha (reigned from 606 to 647).

Buddhist Councils of Ancient India

After the Buddha's death, Buddhist councils were convened over the period of time to recite approved texts of scriptures and to settle doctrinal and disciplinary disputes. 

First Buddhist Council

Soon after the Buddha’s death in the fifth century BC the first Buddhist Council (sangiti) was held at Sattapanni cave near the Magadhan capital of Rajagriha (modern Rajgir, Bihar state of India). It was convened to compile the dhamma (religious doctrines) and the vinaya (monastic code). 

Rajagriha, which once served the capital of Bimbisara of Magadhan Empire, is sixty miles to the south-east of the modern Patna, the capital of Bihar. 

This council was held under the patronage of the king Ajatashatru with the monk Mahakasyapa, who presided over the assembly.

The council was participated in by five hundred monks. At the council, Upali, one of the Buddha’s chief disciples, recited the vinaya pitaka, or Rules of the Order, while another important disciple Ananada recited the sutta pitaka, the collection of the Buddha’s sermons on matters of doctrine and ethics.

Second Buddhist Council
A century later around 383 B.C. Vaishali in Bihar became the venue for the second Buddhist council which was convened to settle a serious dispute over the 'Ten Points’.  This is a reference to claims of some monks breaking ten rules. It is at Vaishali council where schism raised its head. Since either of the parties did not come to terms with each other, the council ended in a permanent schism of the Buddhist church into orthodox Sthaviravadins , or “Believers in the Teaching of the Elders” and Mahasanghikas or “Members of the Great Community”.

Third Buddhist Council
The third council was held at Patliputra (modern Patna, capital of Bihar ) under the patronage of Great Mauryan Emperor Asoka, 236 years after the death of Buddha. Presided over by the scholar monk Moggaliputra Tissa, the council was participated in by one thousand monks. The third Buddhist Council resulted in the expulsion of several heretics.

This council achieved a number of other important things. Moggaliputta Tissa, in order to keep heresies at bay and ensure the Dhamma was kept pure, composed a book called the Kathavatthu in which he disproved the wrong opinions and theories of a number of sects.

Fourth Buddhist Council
The fourth Council was held during the reign of Kanishka of Kushan Dynasty in Kashmir under the leadership of elder Vasumitra and the great scholar Asvaghosha. Here at this council Savastivadin doctrines were codified in a summary, the Mahavibhasa ("Great Exegesis"). The convening of this council led to the division into two broad sects, namely the Mahayana (great Vehicle ) and the Hinayana (lesser Vehicle). According to Buddhist tradition, another fourth Buddhist council was also held at Tambapanni at Alu Vihara in Sri Lanka in 29 B.C. under the patronage of King Vattagamani Abhaya (29–17 bc).  

History of the Western Chalukya Empire

Brahma Jinalaya Temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka / Image Credit

Karka II, the last ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga (modern Kalaburagi) district in Karnataka), was overthrown in AD 974 by Tailapa or Taila II, who started a new line of Chalukyas known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani  (modern day Basavakalyan in the present Bidar district of Karnataka). 

Chalukyas of Kalyani, also known as Western Chalukya dynasty, produced some of the greatest rulers though the genealogy of the rulers of the dynasty is still in the realm of debate.

The kingdom established by Tailapa is known as Later Chalukya or the Chalukyas of Kalyani (The earlier Chalukyas being the Chalukyas of Badami). There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami or Vatapi (also known as early western Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Vengi (also known as eastern Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

Western-Chalukya-Empire / Image Source

Tailapa’s reign lasted for twenty-three years from AD 974 to 997. His rule is marked by extensive conquests. He came into conflict with the Gangas. After defeating Panchaladeva of Ganga dynasty, he captured North Mysore. He fought a prolonged battle with the Paramaras of Malwa and eventually after inflicting a crushing defeat on the Parmara Munja, took him prisoner and the later died in captivity. His reign also saw the beginning of a long drawn phase of wars against the Cholas of Thanjavur, attacking Uttama Chola. The Chalukya-Chola struggle became a regular feature during the rule of his successors. 

Tailapa is known for patronising Kannada poet Ranna, one of three gems of Kannada literature. The 10th century work, Gadhayuddham (The Duel of Maces) is Ranna's magnum opus. 

Tailapa was succeeded by his son and successor Satyasraya, also known as Sollina or Solliga, who continued the aggressive policies of his father. Satyasraya, had to face two Chola invasions led by the mighty Rajendra Chola. The Chola armies plundered the entire Chalukyan territory, Captured Banavasi, the seat of power of the Kadambas and large parts of Raichur Doab, and sacked the Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta. Another Chola army moved towards Vengi and forced Satyasraya to withdraw his forces from Vengi.

After Satyasraya’s death in 1008, his nephew Vikramaditya V ascended the throne. During his reign, nothing of consequence took place. He was succeeded by his brother Jayasimha II in AD 1015. Jayasimha II (1015-1042) has to face the adversaries on several fronts. He had to face wrath of the Parmara Bhoja of Malwa, wanting to avenge the fate of Munja. The Chalukyan kingdom was invaded by Bhoja (1018-1055) who captured Lata (Gujarat) and parts of Konkan. But it was the Rajendra Chola who proved to be his most formidable foe. After many successive defeats of the Chalukyan forces, the Tungabhadra River became the tacit boundary between the two empires. Akkadevi, sister of Jayasimha II, is famed in the history for fighting battles and superintending sieges.

Jayasimha II was succeeded by Someshvara I Ahavamalla (c1042-1068). He shifted his capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani, embellishing the new capital with many beautiful buildings. During the last years of his reign when his power began to decline, he drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River at Kuruvatti.

The continuous wars with the Cholas dent a blow to the Chalukyas resources and resulted in the weakening of the empire. The last notable Chalukya ruler was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126) who is famous for introducing the Chalukya –Vikram era in place of Shaka era. In 1085, his armies advanced towards Kanchi and captured some Chola territories in Andhra. He fought many battles against the Hoyasalas of Dwarasamundra, the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Kadambas of Goa, who were the feudatories of the Chalukyas. But in spite of having defeated them, he could not finally suppress their power and within three decades of his death, most of the leading Chalukyan feudatories asserted their independence.

Apart from his chivalrous exploits, Vikramaditya VI was also famous for patronizing men of letters. Kashmiri poet Bilhana, the author of the Vikaramankadevacharya, and Vijnaneshvara, the commentator of the Mitakshara commentary on the Smritis, adorned his court. He was the hero of Vikramankadevacharita and is said to have obtained brides by svayamvaras, or “self choice’.

After the death of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyas had to face repeated rebellions of their vassals, who soon asserted their independence. By the middle of the twelfth century, the Chalukyan kingdom of Kalyani became almost a shadow of itself and the kingdom was divided into the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (present day Halebidu in Hassan District of Karnataka) and the Yadavas of Devagiri.

Western Chalukya Temples

Kasivisvesvara Temple, Jain temple of Brahma Jinalaya and Nannesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district in Karnataka are the famed Western Chalukya Temples.  

Dragon Palace Temple

The Dragon Palace Temple is a Buddhist temple at Kamptee in Nagpur. 2024 marks the  25th anniversary of Dragon Palace Temple. 

Built in 1999 by the contribution from the Japan-based Ogawa Society, Dragon Palace Temple is a pilgrimage site for the Buddhists. 

Ancient Sacred Places of Buddhism

Bodh Gaya Temple

India is the cradle of Buddhism. The country is home to many sacred shrines of Buddhism. 

Lumbini (in Nepal), Bodh Gaya in Bihar, Sarnath and Kusinagar in Uttar Pradesh, where the four key events of the Buddha’s life, namely birth, attainment of enlightenment, deliverance of the first sermon and death took place respectively, are looked upon with great reverence. 

Meditation At Sarnath

To these are added four other places which were also intimately associated with the Buddha’s life. These are Shravasti, Sankasya (Sanskisa), Rajagriha and Vaishali. These eight places have all along been considered as the eight holy places (ashtamahasthanas) and are well-known pilgrimage destinations.

A major centre of Buddhist pilgrimage, Sravasti in Uttar Pradesh is known for being the place where the Buddha spent the major portion of his missionary life. 

Jetavana Vihara Sravasti

Donated to Buddha by his devotee Sudatta or Anathapindika, a rich banker of Sravasti, Jetavana monastery consisted of a very large complex of buildings including dwelling rooms, bathrooms, halls of meditation and ponds. Anandabodhi tree and the Gandhakuti (Buddha's hut) are located within the site of Jetavana Vihara. 

Stupa and Ashokan Pillar, Vaishali

In addition to the eight sacred shrines, some of the other important Buddhist sites of ancient India are: Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar; Junagarh and Valabhi in Gujarat; Snachi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh; Ajanta - Ellora in Maharashtra; Udayagiri, Lalitgiri and Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kanauj, Kaushambi and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh.

Griddhakuta Hills in Rajgir

With the decline of Buddhism, all the Buddhist shrines fell into neglect. They bore the burnt of invaders, and were either destroyed or plundered. The shrines in western India were however lucky. Being mostly in the shape of rock-cut caves, they were covered with natural growth and became out of the bounds for the destroyers. Most of the ancient shrines unearthed by the archaeologists and explorers have since been restored and developed as religious-cum-tourist centres.

Chalukya Shiva temple or Lad Khan temple

Lad Khan Temple Aihole / Image Credit

A small riverbank village in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka,  Aihole was in ancient times a centre of kingdom of early Chalukyas of Vatapi (now called Badami) who were prolific temple builders. 

Aihole is a town of temples and contains more than hundred structures.

Dating back to the 5th century AD. Lad Khan is the oldest temple in Aihole. Dedicated to Shiva, the temple is a specimen of of the Malaprabha style of architecture. Lad Khan Temple owns its name to a commander of the Bijapur Sultanate who once stayed there.

Nandi facing the shivalinga  / Image Credit 

Mallikarjuna Temple, Pattadakal

Mallikarjuna_Temple,_Pattadakal / Image Credit

Mallikarjuna Temple or Trilokeshwara Temple  is a temple in Pattadakal built by the Badami Chalukyas in the eighth century. Built by Trilokadevi, wife of the Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya II (reigned 733 - 744 AD),   the temple was built immediately after the Virupaksha Temple, which was built by Lokamahadevi, another wife of the Chalukya ruler., in 745 AD. 

Located on the Malaprabha river in Karnataka, Pattadakal is believed to be the site where Chalukyan rulers were crowned kings between the sixth and eighth centuries.

Trilokeshwara Temple bears a resemblance to Virupaksha Temple.  The temple has beautiful pillars and columns narrating scenes from mythology, legends, puranas and Ramayana and Mahabharata. There is a Nandi pavilion in the temple. 

Trilokeshwara Temple is part of the monuments in Pattadakal and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal

Virupaksha Temple / Image Credit

Virupaksha is the largest and grandest of all temples built by the Badami Chalukyas in Pattadakal between the 7th AD and 9th AD centuries. Located on the Malaprabha river in Karnataka, Pattadakal is believed to be the site where Chalukyan rulers were crowned kings. 

Also known as the Lokeshwara temple, the Virupaksha temple was commissioned in 745 AD by the Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya's consort Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas of Kanchi,  The architect of the temple was Sri Gundan Anivaritachari who was given the title of Tenkanadiseyasutradhari (the architect of the South). 

Dedicated to Shiva, the Virupaksha temple is influenced by the architecture of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. The concept and design of the Virupaksha temple later served as a model for the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I (757 -783 A.D.) to carve out the great Kailasha Temple at Ellora.

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  Nandi Facing The Shiva Lingman at Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal 

Amber Fort Jaipur

If there is an absolute must see in Jaipur, it has to be the Amber Fort. A fine specimen of the Rajput architecture, the Amber (pronounced Amer) Fort -Palace is a classical example of romantic forts for which Rajasthan is famous all over the world. 

The Amber Fort is one of the six hill forts of Rajasthan which have been recognised as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Amber was the capital of the Kachhwaha rulers till 1727 A.D when Jaipur was made capital in place of Amber by Maharaja Jai Singh Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, who founded the Jaipur city. 

The construction of the Amber Fort was commenced in 1592 by Man Singh I, one of the foremost generals of the greatest Mughal emperor Akbar, and completed by his successor Jai Singh I. Made of red sandstone and marble and located high on a hill, the Amber Fort consists of a sprawling collection of fairytale buildings including palaces, halls, pavilions as well as temples and gardens. The spectacular reflection of the Amber Fort in the waters of the Maota Lake is a feast for the eyes. 

Chand Baori: Iconic Stepwell in Rajasthan

Chand Baori / Image Credit

95 km from Jaipur is located the medieval Chand Baori (stepwell) at Abhaneri village in the Dausa district of Rajasthan. One of the most famous stepwells in the state, the intricately carved Chand Baori is one of India's largest and deepest step wells. With its haunting architecture, the stepwell is thirteen stories in depth with a maze of 3500 steps.  

Chand Baori is located in front of the Harshat Mata temple, which though in ruins, is known for its beautiful architecture.

Sankar Gompa

Sankar Gompah / Image Credit

Located at a distance of 3 km from Leh in Ladakh, the Sankar Gompa is affiliated with the revered Spituk Gompa and follows the lineage of Gelug, the Yellow Hat sect of Buddhism. 

Here you will find an amazing statue of the Buddhist deity of compassion, Avalokitesvara, with thousand eyes and hands. 

The two-storey Sankar Gompa is the residence of The Kushok Bakul – the regional head of Gelug. The main prayer house enshrines the image of Tsong-kha-pa, the founder of Gelug.  

Kasyapa Matanga And Dharmaratna

White Horse Temple In Luoyang, China / Image Credit

In the 1st century AD, Buddhism was introduced to China by Kasyapa Matanga, an Indian Buddhist monk who traveled  from India to Luoyang in Imperial China with another Indian monk, Dharmaratna or Gobharana. 

Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty constructed the White Horse Temple or Bai Ma Temple in 68 CE in the Han capital Luoyang in honour of these two Indian monks. White Horse Temple is reputed as the first Buddhist temple in China. These two monks learned Chinese and translated several Buddhist books, the first of which was the Sutra of 42 Sections Spoken by Buddha.

Bidar Fort: Marvel at the Medieval Architecture

Recently, Waqf Board has identified 17 monuments inside historical fort of Bidar Fort in Karnataka as its property. The fort was a stronghold of the rulers of the Bahmani kingdom which came into existence in 1347 in the Deccan as a revolt against the rule of the Tughlaq Sultan Muhammad Bin Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate.

Bidar Fort / Image Credit

The Bidar fort is surrounded by three miles of walls with 37 bastions. 

History of Bidar

Built in the 10th century, the Bidar fort underwent significant modifications by the rulers of different dynasties including those belonging to Bahmani Sultanate (1347 -1518) Barid Shahi Dynasty (1527-1619), Mughal Empire (1619-1724) and Nizam of Hyderabad (1724 -1948).

/ Image Credit

In 1427 Bidar Fort became the capital of Bahmani Sultanate which came into being 1347 during the reign of the Tughlaq Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. The capital of the Bahmani was shifted from Gulbarga (present Kalaburagi) to Bidar by Ahmad Shah I, the ninth ruler of the Bahmani dynasty.   

Gumbaz Darwaza / Image Credit

The Bahmani Sultanate had 18 rulers whose rule extended for almost 200 years. Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) used to be its capital before Bidar. Of the 18 Bahmani rulers, first eight rulers made Gulbarga as their capital and the rest ten rulers of the dynasty ruled from Bidar as capital between 1427 and 1538.

Solah Khamba Masjid / Image Credit

The Solah Khamba Masjid is surrounded by landscaped gardens maintained by the Archeological Survey of India (ASI). 

Bidar Fort 

The Fort has seven grand arched gates- of which the Gumbad Darwaza and Sharaza Darwaza were the two most prominent entrance gates. The other five gates – Carnatic Darwaza, Mandu Darwaza, Kalyani Darwaza, Kalmadgi Darwaza, Delhi Darwaza were named based on their directions.

Rangeen Mahal

It is one of the preserved palaces in the Fort. 

Takht Mahal 

Takht Mahal (Throne Palace) is another attraction which once housed the splendid throne of the Bahmani sultans. Diwan-e-Aam where the fabulous turquoise throne (Takht-i-Firoza ) once rested, has three storied structures.

The Solah Khamba Masjid (16 Pillars mosque), Gagan Mahal, Naubat Khana and Tarkash Mahal are other prominent structures in the Bidar Fort. 

Tarkash Mahal

The Hazar Kothari monument is another attraction in the Bidar Fort.  

Rathore Rulers of Bikaner

Junagarh Fort in Bikaner / Incredibleindia.org

History of Bikaner in Rajasthan is the history of its Rathore rulers. Bikaner is named after its founder Rao Bika, son of Jodhpur’s founder Rao Jodha. Rao Bika, a Rajput chieftain of the Rathore clan, founded the princely state of Bikaner in 1486. In this endeavor he was assisted by his brave uncle Rawat Kandhal who was killed in 1490 in the Battle of Sahawa in which the Delhi Sultanate forces were then led by Sarang Khan, Governor of Hisar during the Lodhi dynasty. 

Battle of Sahawa, Rawat Kandhal and Sarang Khan / Image Credit

The area that constitutes the present day region of Bikaner was once a barren land known as “jungledesh”.

Another ruler Rao Lunakaran,  who ruled from 1505 to 1526, built Shri Laxminath Temple in Bikaner.  After his death in a battle with Nawab of Narnaul, the reins of the kingdom passed on to his son Rao Jait Singh who was born on 31 October 1489 and ruled from 1526 to 1542.

He faced the attack of the Mughal attack under Kamran, the second son of Babur, the first Mughal emperor. Kamran captured Bikaner’s fort, albeit for a day, which had otherwise remained unconquered in history. The Mughal army had to retreat due to the onslaught of the Bikaner forces. 

Jait Singh was killed in a battle with Rao Maldeo Rathore of Jodhpur. He was succeeded by his son Rao Kalyan Mal (1542 –1571) who acknowledged the suzerainty of Emperor Akbar at Nagaur in November 1570. With the support of Sher Shah Suri, the founder of Sur dynasty, Kalyan Mal defeated Maldeo in 1945 in the Battle of Sammel. It was a pyric victory for Sher Shah who suffered heavy loss due to the valiant efforts of commanders Jaita and Kumpa of Maldeo Rathore. He is said to have remarked after this ""for a handful of millet, I almost lost the Empire of Hindustan." 

Next in line was his son Rao Rai Singh who ruled from 1571 to 1611.  He is famous for commissioning the Junagarh Fort in Bikaner, built under the supervision of his minister Karan Chand. The Junagadh Fort was built between 1589 and 1594.

In the second half of the seventeenth century, Anup Singh, the ruler of Bikaner during 1669–1698, had led the Mughal army to capture the Golconda Sultanate under Abul Hasan Qutb Shah in 1687, for which Aurangzeb granted him the title Maharaja. Aurangzeb also granted him the royal honour of Mahi Maratib. 

He collected several manuscripts and established the Anup Sanskrit Library in his capital city of Bikaner.

After the weakening of the Mughal Empire following the death of Aurangzeb, Bikaner and the princely state of Jodhpur indulged in battle. 

In 1818 the princely state of Bikaner entered the protection of the East India Company under subsidiary alliance system started by Lord Wellesley (Lord Wellesley (1798-1805). Under this system the Indian ruler, who entered into this alliance, was to surrender a part of his territories or give money for the maintenance of a subsidiary force of the British needed for the defence of the state. The subsidiary state had also to surrender its external relations to the Company and accept a British resident at the capital.

At the time of its integration with the state of Rajasthan in 1949, the princely state of Bikaner controlled an area of more than (60,000 square km).

Faraizi Movement: A Puritan Movement

Faraizi Movement is a nineteenth century religious reform movement which advocated the observance of the original teachings of Islam. The term Faraizi is derived from 'farz' meaning obligatory duties enjoined by Allah. 

Starting as a religious (communal) movement in Bengal, Faraizi Movement in course of time became a struggle against the landlords (who were mostly Hindus) who oppressed the common people and farmers and British colonists. 

Founded by a puritan and zealot, Haji Shariatullah, the movement began with a call to the Muslims to perform their obligatory duties (Fard) enjoined by Allah with a view to purging the religion of the un-Islamic rites which he considered were contrary to the teachings of the Qu’ran. To give his Muslim followers a separate identity,  a particular dress was introduced. Shariatullah advocated different styles of beards for his followers.

Haji Shariatullah was born in Faridpur (now in Bangladesh) in 1781. 

After Haji Shariatullah’s death in 1840, the mantle of leadership was passed on to his son Muhsinuddin Ahmed, more popularly known as Dudu Miyan. Under Dudu Miyan, the movement became agrarian in character. After his death in 1862, the movement began to lose steam and ultimately died down. 

Santhal Rebellion of 1855

Santhal Rebellion / Image Credit

Santhal Rebellion ( Santhal Hul ) against the British colonialists or to be precise British East India Company (BEIC), landlords and Zamindars occurred a couple of years before India’s First War of Independence in 1857. The rebellion spread a considerable area that comprise the ‘Santhal Pargana’ or ‘Damin-i-Koh’ which includes present-day districts of Dumka, Godda, Sahibganj,  Deoghar, Pakur, and parts of Jamtara, in modern -day Jharkhand. 

It was June 29, 1855, when two brothers Kanhu Murmu and Sidhu Murmu, belonging to the Santhal community, asked the Santhals to assemble in the valley of Burhyte, modern-day Barhait, in Jharkhand. On the next day more than thousands of Santhals assembled at the Bhognadih village in the Sahibganj district where a divine order was issued asking the Santhals to free themselves from the clutches of their oppressors and “take possessions of the country and set up a government of their own.” 

Thus began the Santhal rebellion, also known as the Santhal Hool, which was precipitated by economic reasons.  

Hul Diwas (30th June) is observed in memory of four brothers - Sidho, Kanho, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu - along with sisters Phulo and Jhano, who had led the campaign against exploitation by colonial administrators, money lenders, upper castes, and zamindars. Interest on loans, ranging from 50 to 500 per cent, was charged by the diku (outsider) from the tribals  many of whom who were also cheated of their lands. The non-payment of wages by the railways was also one of the reasons that drove the Santhals to rebellion. Added to this, the Santhal women were insulted by these authorities.  

As the uprising began to take shape, houses of money lenders, zamindars, white planters, railway engineers and British officers were attacked by the rebels. This continued till February 1856 when the authorities crushed the rebellion with severe casualties and devastation. More than 15,000 Santhals lost their lives.