Bhavabhuti, one of the greatest dramatists of ancient India

In importance, Bhavabhuti is second only to Kalidasa, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist. He resided in the court of Yasovarman of Kanauj in the early 8^th century. Three of his plays have survived: Malati and Madhava; The Deeds of the Great Hero (Mahavircharita); and “The Later Deeds of Rama” (Uttararamcharita).

Bhavabhuti’s greatness rests on his deep understanding of sorrow. As a matter of fact, in his treatment of the pathetic, according to the critics, he edges past even Kalidasa.

Malati and Madhava is a love story which tells the rescue of the heroine from the jaws of death for more than once.

Mahavircharita and Uttararamcharita tell the story of Lord Rama.

Bhavabhuti in his Uttararamcharita has concluded with the full reconciliation of Rama and Sita in place of the grim ending to the story in which Sita allows herself to be swallowed up by the earth to prove her innocence.

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Bhaskaravarman of Kamrup

A contemporary of Harshvardhan (Harsha) of Kanauj and Sasank, the Gauda king of Bengal, in the first half of the seventh century AD, Bhaskaravarman was the ruler of Kamarup in modern Assam. 

When Sasank, the arch-enemy of Harsha, was increasing the extent of his empire, Bhaskaravarman felt the need of checking his advance.  On the other hand, Harsha was looking for the opportunity to avenge the death of his elder brother and predecessor Rajyavardhana who was killed by the King of Bengal.  The common cause of the both resulted in an alliance between Harsha and Bhaskaravarman.

However, Sasank proved to be a formidable adversary. The combined enemies of Harsha and Bhaskaravarman failed to achieve any tangible results. It was after the death of Sasank that the Gauda kingdom of Karnasuvarna (in the Murshidabad district of West Bengal) became a part of the Kamarupa kingdom. 

Gondophernes: The Pahlava Ruler

                                                        Takht-i-Bahi monastery / Image Credit

Gondophernes was the most prominent and famous of the Pahlava or Parthian rulers who ruled north-western part of India towards the end of the 1^st century BC.  He was a great patron of Indian culture which can be gauged from the numerous coins found in the northwest of India. These coins also point to the wide extent of his suzerainty that included Kandhar, Kabul and Taxila. Gondophernes was probably responsible for the defeat of Hermaeus, the last of the Greek rulers in India.

His inscription has been found at the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bhai (Throne of Origins) in Pakistan.

 

Christian tradition has it that India’s first brush with Christianity took place during his reign by the efforts of the Christian apostle St. Thomas who is said to have visited his empire. However, truth of the legend does not find favour with some authorities who maintain that going by Gondophernes’ date he cannot be a contemporary of St. Thomas.

Gondophernes ruled for twenty years. His successors were weak and fought among themselves. Thus came the end of the Pahlava empire.

Art and Craft of Harappan Civilisation

Clay utensils of Harappan Civilization

Mahendravarman I: The Versatile Pallava Ruler

A contemporary of north Indian ruler Harshavardhan in the seventh century AD, Mahendravarman was one of the prominent kings of Pallava dynasty which had been ruling the region south of Krishna-Tungabhadra in South India since fourth century AD. Mahendravarman was an individual of versatile genius: an author, an architect, a painter, a musician and a soldier. 

Mahendravarman is known for introducing the cave style of temple architecture for which Pallavas are known all over the world.

Mahendravarman was the son of Simhavishnu who ascended the throne in the latter half of the sixth century AD; or to be more precise, 575 AD. From Simhavishnu’s time the history of Pallavas emerges from legend and dubious tradition and becomes more definite.

Mahendravarman’s accession to the throne signaled the growing strength of the Pallavas. It was the reign of Mahendravarman which saw the beginning of that famous struggle between the Pallavas and their sworn enemies, the Chalukyas of Vatapi (early western Chalukyas), who ruled north of them. The struggle which became necessary for the mastery of south India, lingered through the generations. During his reign the Pallava capital Kanchipuram was destroyed by western Chalukya king Pulakesin II.

In his early days Mahendravarman was a Jaina, but was converted to Shaivism by Appar, one of the most famous of the sixty-three Nayanars, the Shaiva poets of the Tamil country. This conversion was to a great measure responsible for the decrease in the royal patronage to Jainism in Tamil nadu.

Mahendravarman I, who assumed the significant title of Vichitrachitta, "curious-minded", was a writer of standing. He is credited with the authorship of the famous burlesque known as the Mattavilasa-prahasana. He had also authored another play Bhagavadajjuka. He had several titles such as Mattavilasa, ‘Chatrumalla’, ’Gunabhara’, ’Avnibhajana’, ’ Sankirna Jati’. 

Mahendravarman I was a great patron of art and architecture too. Under his instructions, some of the finest rock-temples at Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram (located in the Chengalpattu district in Tamil Nadu) were hewn out. 

Siraj-ud-Daulah, The Bengal Nawab

                                Mir Jafar and Robert Clive after the Battle of Plassey by Francis Hayman

After the death of Aurangzeb, the disintegration of the Mughal Empire was rapid.  Delhi, the seat of power of the Mughals, gave way to Bengal as the centre of political importance in India. It can be ascertained from the fact that the British win over Siraj ud Daula in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, which took place just 50 years after death of Aurangzeb, laid the foundation of the British Empire in India. During the period, Bengal was ruled by the Nawabs with their capital at Murshidabad. Though nominally governors or viceroys of the Mughals, the Nawabs were independent heads of state for all practical purposes. 

Siraj ud Daula became the Nawab of Bengal after the death of his grandfather Alivardi Khan who died in 1756. He was the son of latter's youngest daughter. This was not liked by his near relations including his mother’s eldest sister, Ghasiti Begum, and his cousin Shaukat Jung who went all length to conspire against him.  In addition Siraj ud Daula found in Mir Jafar, the Commander-in-Chief of the army, a formidable enemy.

Though inexperienced and lacking decision making power, Siraj-ud-Daulah became successful in overcoming these challenges by killing Shaukat Jung in October 1756. Ghasiti Begum was rendered powerless by the confiscation of her wealth. Mir Jafar was replaced by Mir Madan as the commander of the army.

Siraj ud Daula, the then Nawab of Bengal, resented to the interference by the East India Company in his province. He was also livid with the company’s abuse of the commercial privileges which was granted by the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar under the firman of 1717.

The ‘Black Hole’ was a tragic incident that happened in the run-up to the Battle of Plassey. The incident served as casus belli for the invasion by the British on Murshidabad.

With the worsening of the relations between the Bengal Nawab and the English, the latter hatched a conspiracy with Mir Jafar. The battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757, resulting in the defeat of Siraj-ud-Daulah who fled from the battlefield. He was, however, captured and put to death by the orders of Miran, the son of Mir Jafar who was now made the Nawab of Bengal.

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

Lord Wellesley was appointed Governor General of Bengal in 1798 at the age of 37. One of the top British rulers in India, he devised strategies to establish British paramountcy in India. He ranks among the highs of Lord Clive, Lord Dalhousie and Warren Hastings. When it comes to achievements, he is a cut above the rest of the British rulers in India.

During his tenure of seven years, Lord Wellesley became successful in defeating the adversaries of the English Company. Jettisoning the non-intervention policy, he applied the system of Subsidiary Alliance with a missionary zeal. Under the Subsidiary Alliance system, the Indian ruler, who entered into this alliance, was to surrender a part of his territories or give money for the maintenance of a subsidiary force of the British needed for the defence of the state. The subsidiary state had also to surrender its external relations to the Company and accept a British resident at the capital.

The Indian states and rulers who entered into Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance System were Mysore, Hyderabad, Tanjore, Berar, Awadh, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bharatpur, Macheri, Bundi, and the Peshwa.

During his rule, the Fourth Mysore War took place in 1799 resulting in the defeat of and killing of Tipu Sultan. The Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-04) witnessed the defeat of Sindhia, the Bhonsle and the Holkar which dealt a body blow the Maratha power in India.