Tuesday, December 24, 2013

Aram Shah (2010-2011): Second Slave Ruler of Delhi Sultanate

After his death at Lahore in early November in 1210, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the founder of the Slave (Mamluk) dynasty, was succeeded by Aram Bakhsh who ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate under the title of Sultan Aram Shah. The exact nature of relationship of Aram Bakhsh with Qutb-ud-din is not known. According to one school of thought, he was his son. However, contemporary historian Minhaj –us-Siraj makes no mention of Qutb-ud-din’s son and says that he had only three daughters. According to Abul Fazal, court historian of Mughal Emperor Akbar, Aram Shah was Qutb-ud-din’s brother. 

Sultan Aram Shah proved to be an inexperienced and incapable ruler. The nobles and amirs invited Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s son-in-law Iltutmish, then governor of Badaun, who defeated Aram Shah in the plains of Jud near Delhi. Thus ended the eight month rule of Aram Shah who was not heard of afterwards.  


Sunday, November 17, 2013

Chola Dynasty of Sangam Age

Cholas were one of the three major ruling dynasties of the Tamil Country during the Sangam period. They ruled over an area known as Tondaimandalam or Cholamandalam. The most celebrated ruler of this line was Karikalan who made a grand anicut at Kaveri and laid the foundation of the capital of Kaveripattinam, also known as Puhar. Kaveripattinam, now a non-descript fishing village silted up by the river mud, had an artificial harbour which was built by prisoners of war who were obtained by him following his successful raid on Sri Lanka. Uraiyur was the earlier capital of the Chola kingdom.  

Karikalan was the son of Ilanjetcenni who was a valiant and brave ruler.

Karikalan, which means man with a charred leg, was so named because his leg was caught in flames when the prison, in which he was incarcerated after being kidnapped by his enemies, was set on fire. He, however, managed to escape alive. 

A contemporary of Chera king Perunjeral Adan whom he defeated in the Battle of Venni (modern Kovilvenni, 15 miles (24 km) to the east of Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu), Karikalan was an able ruler and great general. Equipped with a powerful army, he made Chola a naval power very early in the historical period as gauged from his victory on the Sri Lankan kingdom. He is said to have founded Kaveripattinam or Puhar, the chief port of the ancient Chola kingdom.

After Karikalan’s death, the Chola kingdom plunged into utter chaos as a result of the internal strife among the royal family. His two sons were ruling from two different capitals Uraiyur and Kaveripumpattinam.

Karikalan’s great grandson Ilagovadigal is credited with the authorship of the greatest Tamil epic Silappadigaram. 

The last great Chola ruler of the Sangam period was Nedunjelian who defeated the rulers of Chera and Pandya dynasties. He was, however, mortally wounded in the war.

After the third century AD decline for Chola kingdom set in due to the frequent attacks by the Cheras and the Pandyas. Pallavas who were now emerging as another power also invaded the Chola territory. 

According to Tamil epic Manimekalai written by Sattan of Madurai, the port town of Kaveripumpattinam was destroyed by the vicious tidal waves of the sea during the reign of later Chola ruler Killivalavan. 


Reference: 
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar. 

Tuesday, October 29, 2013

Chandragupta Maurya, Founder of Mauryan Empire

                              Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE / Wikimedia Commons

Chandragupta Maurya’s claim to fame rests on the fact that he was the founder of the first and one of the greatest empires that appeared in India. He not only succeeded in overthrowing the unpopular last ruler of the Nandas with their capital at Pataliputra (modern day Patna), also to his credit goes the driving out of the Greeks garrisons from the North-West frontier set up as a result of Alexander’s invasion and unification of a large part of India including the Deccan. In fact, he was the first Indian ruler who sent military expeditions beyond the Vindhyas and brought the area under his influence.

The early life of Chandragupta Maurya

The early life of Chandragupta Maurya and his ascent to the throne is hidden in obscurity. He is described as Sandrocottus in the Greek sources which attest to his meeting with Alexander who is said to have not liked his boldness of speech. 
Chandragupta Maurya is also mentioned as Sandrocottus in the Greek sources. 

According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle Mahavamsa, Chandragupta Maurya belonged to the Kshatriya clan of the Moriyas of Pipphalivana. The Jaina text Sthaviravali Charita or Parishishtaparvan, written by 12th century Jaina author Hemchandra, states that he was the son of “the chief of the peacock tamers”. 

The sixth century work of Vishakhadatta, Mudrarakshasa (Minister’s Signet Ring), which describes the usurpation of the Nanda throne by Chandragupta, refers to his low origin, which can be gauged by the epithets ‘Vrishala’ and ‘Kulahina’ used by the text for Chandragupta. In the backdrop of conflicting descriptions, Justin’s statement that he was “born in humble life” seems plausible.

Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chankya, was the minister of Chandragupta Maurya. 

Military Conquests of Chandragupta Maurya

The sources dealing with the military conquests of Chandragupta Maurya are annoyingly scarce. As a matter of fact, it is not clear whether he first overthrew Mahapadma Nanda, the last Nanda ruler, or drove put the Greeks from the North-West part of India. From the inferences from the Jaina and Greek sources, it seems that liberation of Punjab was the first military activity by Chandragupta Maurya who felt emboldened by the confusion in the Greek empire that followed Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BC in Babylon. Justin writes about the prevailing condition of the time, “India, after the death of Alexander, had shaken, as it were, the yoke of servitude from its neck ad put his Governors to death. The architect of this liberation was Sandrocottus.” 

After driving out the Greeks, Chandragupta turned his attention to the overthrow of the Nanda dynasty that was ruling Pataliputra at that time. Again, we are faced with the scarcity of accounts about this conquest. From the Jaina work Parisisthaparvan we come to know that Chankya, the able Brahmin advisor of Chandragupta, aided him in the conquest of Pataliputra by making him allying with a neighbouring king Parvataka. The combined armies of both the powers dealt the body-blow to the Nanda empire. According to Milinda-panho, Nanda army was led by its general Bhaddasala.

After the defeat of the Nanda power, Chandragupta declared himself the ruler of Magadha. He, however, again embarked on a policy of fresh military expeditions thereby bringing different parts of India under his suzerainty.

War with Seleucus

A war with Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals, became inevitable for Chandragupta as the former after his master’s death became ruler of Babylon and tried to recover Alexander’s Indian provinces which had become part of the Mauryan empire.  However Seleucus was defeated and entered into an alliance by ceding the Satrapies of Archosia (Kandahar) and the Paropanisade (Kabul), together with portions of Aria (Herat) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan). Under the terms of the alliance, the Mauryan emperor presented 500 elephants to the Greek general. According to Appian, the peace was concluded by a marriage alliance. However, the exact nature of this alliance is not known. Megasthenese was sent as ambassador to the Mauryan court to reside at Pataliputra.

Conquests of Western India and South

That western India was included in the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta can be ascertained from the Saka ruler Rudradaman I's Girnar Rock Inscription of  about 150 AD which refers to his reconstruction of a great dam or reservoir for irrigation which was excavated by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Chandragupta Maurya in the provinces of Anarta and Saurashtra (Gujarat).  Chandragupta further extended his boundaries into the Konkan in Maharashtra where Asoka’s Rock Edict has been found at Sopara. Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, had excavated several edicts and inscriptions throughout the length and breadth of his kingdom. Since Bindusara, who was the son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya, is not known to have made any conquest and Asoka only conquered the Kalinga kingdom of Odisha, it can be said with certainty that Konkan was annexed to the Mauryan empire by Chandragupta.

Same can be said of Chandragupta’s expansion of his territories beyond the Vindhyas. The Rock Edicts II and XIII of Asoka state that the Mauryan empire shares its border with those of the southern kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras.

Last years of Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya ruled for twenty-four years. His rule ended either in 301-300 BC or 298-97 BC. According to the Jaina text Parishisthaparvan, he embraced Jainism towards the end of his life. He abdicated the throne in favour of his son and retired to Jaina temple and monastery at Sarvanbelgola in Karnataka with his teacher Bhadrabahu. There he starved himself to death.  

Thursday, October 10, 2013

Islam Shah Suri: Successor of Sher Shah Suri and Second Sur Ruler

After the death of Sher Shah Suri, the founder of Sur dynasty that almost supplanted the nascent Mughal Empire resulting in the exile of the second Mughal emperor Humayun from India, he was succeeded on the throne by his second son Jalal Khan on 25th May 1545 AD. Sher Shah died on 22nd May from an accidental explosion of gunpowder during his siege of the Hindu fort of Kalinjar in central India. Since it was felt by the nobles of the empire that someone was needed to be raised to the throne as early as possible they forsake his eldest son Adil Khan in favour of Jalal Khan who was in the town of Rewah which was nearer to Kalinjar than Ranthambore where the eldest son was present at the time of Sher Shah’s demise. 
 
Jalal Khan ascended the throne with the title of Islam Shah though he is more popularly known as Salim Shah. The fort he built in Delhi is also known as Salimgarh Fort, lying adjacent to the Red Fort built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, the builder of Taj Mahal. 

A ruined mosque inside Salimgarh Fort / Image Credit


Though Islam Shah Suri tried to be an efficient ruler to some extent but he remained in constant dread of his elder brother Adil Khan who was nominated heir apparent to the Sur Empire. However, he succeeded in defeating Adil Khan who fled the battlefield. Nothing is heard of him after that.

Islam Shah’s reign was marked by intrigues and useless quarrels. He became suspicious of the nobles and thus embarked on a reign of tyranny and brutality. He died in November 1554 in Gwalior and was buried in Sasaram in Bihar near the tomb of his father. He was succeeded by his minor son Firuz Khan, who was twelve years of age at that time. After three days Firuz was murdered by his own maternal uncle Mubariz Khan, son of Nizam Khan Sur, Sher Shah's younger brother. Mubariz Khan was the brother of Firuz Khan's mother, Bibi Bai.  

Mubariz Khan ascended the throne under the title of Muhammad Adil Shah.

Key Points
  • Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi is the only historical account on the reign of Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri. It was written by Abbas Khan Sarwani and commissioned by third Mughal ruler Akbar whose father Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri at the battles of Chausa and Kanauj in 1540. 
  • Tomb of Sher Shah at Sasaram was completed by Islam Shah Suri. 
  • Tomb of Islam Shah Suri is also at Sasaram. It is one km north west of the tomb of Sher Shah's tomb.
  • During the rule of Islam Shah Suri, prostration was made before the vacant throne  
  • Kamran, brother of Humayun, tried to enlist the support of Islam Shah Sur against his own brother. However, Islam Shah Sur rebuffed his request.  

                     Incomplete Tomb of Islam Khan Tomb at Sasaram / Image Source


Bibliography 
SAA Rizvi: The Wonder that was India

Thursday, September 12, 2013

Vijayanagar Empire

Though the origin of the Vijayanagar Empire is in the realm of debate, it can be said with certainty that its foundation in 1336 was a culmination of the political and cultural movement against the Muslim ideas and forces of Delhi Sultanate in the south India. This powerful kingdom continued to unfurl the banner of Hinduism for almost three centuries. The nucleus of the kingdom was the city of Vijayanagar, identified with present day Hampi (located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River) in Karnataka. 

Sangama Dynasty

There is unanimity among the historians that the kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka, sons of Sangama. The first dynasty which lasted from 1336 to 1485 was named after Sangama, father of the duo. After Harihara, Bukka ruled from 1356 to 1377. In 1374 he sent an embassy to China. He was succeeded in 1377 by his son Harihara II who ruled till 1404. During his rule of 27 years he strengthened the power of the Vijayanagar empire and was responsible for its supremacy over the whole of southern India.

Another important ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya I who became its ruler in 1406 and ruled till 1422. Deva Raya II who ruled from 1424 to 1446 was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He is known for his title Gajabetegara (a hunter of elephant). 

Saluva dynasty

The second dynasty, known as Saluva dynasty, was founded by Narasimha Saluva in 1485. The Saluva dynasty ruled till 1505. 

Taluva dynasty

Taluva was the third dynasty which ruled till 1570. This dynasty produced the greatest king of Vijayanagar empire, Krishnadeva Raya (ruled 1509-29). 

It was during the reign of the Taluva king Sadashiva Raya (1543- 69) that famous battle of Rakshasa Tangadi or Talikota in 1565 was fought in which Vijayanagar army was defeated by the combined forces of the five Muslim Sultanates of Deccan. This gave body blow to the empire. After this battle the kingdom lost its grandeur and glory. 

Aravidu dynasty

Though the rulers of the fourth dynasty, known as Aravidu dynasty, continue to rule till the middle of the seventeenth century, they were not able to retrieve the lost glory of the kingdom.


Monday, September 9, 2013

Indian History Questions: Sangam Age

Q. 1 Which of the following Sangam rulers is known as ‘Red Chera’?
(a) Senguttuvan
(b) Karikala
(c) Nedunjeral
(d) Elara

Answer (a)

Q. 2 Which of the following kings of the Sangam Age is credited with the foundation of Puhar or Kaveripattinam?
(a) Karikala
(b) Elara
(c) Vijayalaya
(d) Ilandiraiyan

Answer (a)

Q. 3 Karikala, the famous king of this period, belonged to which of the following dynasties did?
(a) Chola
(b) Chera
(c) Pandya
(d) Pallava
Answer (a)

Q. 4 Which of the following was not one of the royal dynasties of the Tamil country during the Sangam Age?
(a) Pandya
(b) Chera
(c) Pallava
(d) Chola
Answer (c)

Q. 5 The spies during the Sangam period were known as?
(a) Dutas
(b) Spasas
(c) Orrars
(d) Sanjayans

Answer (c)












Indian History Questions: Sangam Age



Q. 1 Which of the following Sangam rulers is known as ‘Red Chera’?
(a) Senguttuvan
(b) Karikala
(c) Nedunjeral
(d) Elara
Answer (a)
Q. 2 Which of the following kings of the Sangam Age is credited with the foundation of Puhar or Kaveripattinam?
(a) Karikala
(b) Elara
(c) Vijayalaya
(d) Ilandiraiyan
Answer (c)

Swami Shraddhanand

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