Women in Ancient India

Throughout most of ancient Indian history, the role of women was more or less confined to the home. Though there are instances where women wielded power and authority, this did not imply the common lot of the women in ancient India.

A woman was under the patriarchal authority of her parents, husband and sons. Even under Buddhism which boasted of liberal rules, a nun would be treated as subordinate to her male counterpart.

The status of women in ancient India kept on changing at different stages. During the Rig Vedic Period, women were treated equal to man.  During the Vedic period women participated in the public sacrifices alongside men. Some Vedic hymns are attributed to women. During this period, there were women rishis, and they were treated with respect and dignity.

However with the passage of time the status of women declined. 

Manu, one of the famous lawgivers of ancient India, declared that wife, like the slave, has no right to property. He dictated a woman would be dependent on her father in childhood, on her husband in youth and on her son in old age. However, some allowed a woman to own their special property (stridhana) in the form of jewellery and clothing.

In ancient Indian society a woman could find their role in religion, but could not serve the temples as priestess.

However in Vedic period the position of women was much more enhanced. Women seers are said to have composed some o the Vedic hymns. The famous discussion between Gargi and Yajnavalkya is well known. But by the beginning of the Christian era, women were declared ineligible for Vedic study. However, there are references to many references to literary works attributed to women poets and dramatists. In Tamil literature, the early poetess Avvaiyar composed works of high literary merit. Poruna-raatr-uppadai, which describes the victory of Karikala Chola in the battle at Venni near Thanjavur, has been attributed to a potter’s wife.

Sati in Ancient India 

The earliest  known Sati stone in India is an inscription engraved in A.D. 510 on a pillar found at Eran near Sagar in Madhya Pradesh. The Eran inscription mentions the wife of Goparaja, a vassal of Bhanugupta of the Gupta empire, burning herself on her husband's pyre.  The inscription mentions that his wife followed him on the pyre after his death in the battle against the Hunas.

The practice of sati was disapproved of by Bana, the court poet of Harsha (reigned from 606 to 647).

Buddhist Councils of Ancient India

After the Buddha's death, Buddhist councils were convened over the period of time to recite approved texts of scriptures and to settle doctrinal and disciplinary disputes. 

First Buddhist Council

Soon after the Buddha’s death in the fifth century BC the first Buddhist Council (sangiti) was held at Sattapanni cave near the Magadhan capital of Rajagriha (modern Rajgir, Bihar state of India). It was convened to compile the dhamma (religious doctrines) and the vinaya (monastic code). 

Rajagriha, which once served the capital of Bimbisara of Magadhan Empire, is sixty miles to the south-east of the modern Patna, the capital of Bihar. 

This council was held under the patronage of the king Ajatashatru with the monk Mahakasyapa, who presided over the assembly.

The council was participated in by five hundred monks. At the council, Upali, one of the Buddha’s chief disciples, recited the vinaya pitaka, or Rules of the Order, while another important disciple Ananada recited the sutta pitaka, the collection of the Buddha’s sermons on matters of doctrine and ethics.

Second Buddhist Council
A century later around 383 B.C. Vaishali in Bihar became the venue for the second Buddhist council which was convened to settle a serious dispute over the 'Ten Points’.  This is a reference to claims of some monks breaking ten rules. It is at Vaishali council where schism raised its head. Since either of the parties did not come to terms with each other, the council ended in a permanent schism of the Buddhist church into orthodox Sthaviravadins , or “Believers in the Teaching of the Elders” and Mahasanghikas or “Members of the Great Community”.

Third Buddhist Council
The third council was held at Patliputra (modern Patna, capital of Bihar ) under the patronage of Great Mauryan Emperor Asoka, 236 years after the death of Buddha. Presided over by the scholar monk Moggaliputra Tissa, the council was participated in by one thousand monks. The third Buddhist Council resulted in the expulsion of several heretics.

This council achieved a number of other important things. Moggaliputta Tissa, in order to keep heresies at bay and ensure the Dhamma was kept pure, composed a book called the Kathavatthu in which he disproved the wrong opinions and theories of a number of sects.

Fourth Buddhist Council
The fourth Council was held during the reign of Kanishka of Kushan Dynasty in Kashmir under the leadership of elder Vasumitra and the great scholar Asvaghosha. Here at this council Savastivadin doctrines were codified in a summary, the Mahavibhasa ("Great Exegesis"). The convening of this council led to the division into two broad sects, namely the Mahayana (great Vehicle ) and the Hinayana (lesser Vehicle). According to Buddhist tradition, another fourth Buddhist council was also held at Tambapanni at Alu Vihara in Sri Lanka in 29 B.C. under the patronage of King Vattagamani Abhaya (29–17 bc).  

History of the Western Chalukya Empire

Brahma Jinalaya Temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka / Image Credit

Karka II, the last ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga (modern Kalaburagi) district in Karnataka), was overthrown in AD 974 by Tailapa or Taila II, who started a new line of Chalukyas known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani  (modern day Basavakalyan in the present Bidar district of Karnataka). 

Chalukyas of Kalyani, also known as Western Chalukya dynasty, produced some of the greatest rulers though the genealogy of the rulers of the dynasty is still in the realm of debate.

The kingdom established by Tailapa is known as Later Chalukya or the Chalukyas of Kalyani (The earlier Chalukyas being the Chalukyas of Badami). There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami or Vatapi (also known as early western Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Vengi (also known as eastern Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

Western-Chalukya-Empire / Image Source

Tailapa’s reign lasted for twenty-three years from AD 974 to 997. His rule is marked by extensive conquests. He came into conflict with the Gangas. After defeating Panchaladeva of Ganga dynasty, he captured North Mysore. He fought a prolonged battle with the Paramaras of Malwa and eventually after inflicting a crushing defeat on the Parmara Munja, took him prisoner and the later died in captivity. His reign also saw the beginning of a long drawn phase of wars against the Cholas of Thanjavur, attacking Uttama Chola. The Chalukya-Chola struggle became a regular feature during the rule of his successors. 

Tailapa is known for patronising Kannada poet Ranna, one of three gems of Kannada literature. The 10th century work, Gadhayuddham (The Duel of Maces) is Ranna's magnum opus. 

Tailapa was succeeded by his son and successor Satyasraya, also known as Sollina or Solliga, who continued the aggressive policies of his father. Satyasraya, had to face two Chola invasions led by the mighty Rajendra Chola. The Chola armies plundered the entire Chalukyan territory, Captured Banavasi, the seat of power of the Kadambas and large parts of Raichur Doab, and sacked the Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta. Another Chola army moved towards Vengi and forced Satyasraya to withdraw his forces from Vengi.

After Satyasraya’s death in 1008, his nephew Vikramaditya V ascended the throne. During his reign, nothing of consequence took place. He was succeeded by his brother Jayasimha II in AD 1015. Jayasimha II (1015-1042) has to face the adversaries on several fronts. He had to face wrath of the Parmara Bhoja of Malwa, wanting to avenge the fate of Munja. The Chalukyan kingdom was invaded by Bhoja (1018-1055) who captured Lata (Gujarat) and parts of Konkan. But it was the Rajendra Chola who proved to be his most formidable foe. After many successive defeats of the Chalukyan forces, the Tungabhadra River became the tacit boundary between the two empires. Akkadevi, sister of Jayasimha II, is famed in the history for fighting battles and superintending sieges.

Jayasimha II was succeeded by Someshvara I Ahavamalla (c1042-1068). He shifted his capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani, embellishing the new capital with many beautiful buildings. During the last years of his reign when his power began to decline, he drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River at Kuruvatti.

The continuous wars with the Cholas dent a blow to the Chalukyas resources and resulted in the weakening of the empire. The last notable Chalukya ruler was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126) who is famous for introducing the Chalukya –Vikram era in place of Shaka era. In 1085, his armies advanced towards Kanchi and captured some Chola territories in Andhra. He fought many battles against the Hoyasalas of Dwarasamundra, the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Kadambas of Goa, who were the feudatories of the Chalukyas. But in spite of having defeated them, he could not finally suppress their power and within three decades of his death, most of the leading Chalukyan feudatories asserted their independence.

Apart from his chivalrous exploits, Vikramaditya VI was also famous for patronizing men of letters. Kashmiri poet Bilhana, the author of the Vikaramankadevacharya, and Vijnaneshvara, the commentator of the Mitakshara commentary on the Smritis, adorned his court. He was the hero of Vikramankadevacharita and is said to have obtained brides by svayamvaras, or “self choice’.

After the death of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyas had to face repeated rebellions of their vassals, who soon asserted their independence. By the middle of the twelfth century, the Chalukyan kingdom of Kalyani became almost a shadow of itself and the kingdom was divided into the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (present day Halebidu in Hassan District of Karnataka) and the Yadavas of Devagiri.

Western Chalukya Temples

Kasivisvesvara Temple, Jain temple of Brahma Jinalaya and Nannesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district in Karnataka are the famed Western Chalukya Temples.  

Dragon Palace Temple

The Dragon Palace Temple is a Buddhist temple at Kamptee in Nagpur. 2024 marks the  25th anniversary of Dragon Palace Temple. 

Built in 1999 by the contribution from the Japan-based Ogawa Society, Dragon Palace Temple is a pilgrimage site for the Buddhists. 

Ancient Sacred Places of Buddhism

Bodh Gaya Temple

India is the cradle of Buddhism. The country is home to many sacred shrines of Buddhism. 

Lumbini (in Nepal), Bodh Gaya in Bihar, Sarnath and Kusinagar in Uttar Pradesh, where the four key events of the Buddha’s life, namely birth, attainment of enlightenment, deliverance of the first sermon and death took place respectively, are looked upon with great reverence. 

Meditation At Sarnath

To these are added four other places which were also intimately associated with the Buddha’s life. These are Shravasti, Sankasya (Sanskisa), Rajagriha and Vaishali. These eight places have all along been considered as the eight holy places (ashtamahasthanas) and are well-known pilgrimage destinations.

A major centre of Buddhist pilgrimage, Sravasti in Uttar Pradesh is known for being the place where the Buddha spent the major portion of his missionary life. 

Jetavana Vihara Sravasti

Donated to Buddha by his devotee Sudatta or Anathapindika, a rich banker of Sravasti, Jetavana monastery consisted of a very large complex of buildings including dwelling rooms, bathrooms, halls of meditation and ponds. Anandabodhi tree and the Gandhakuti (Buddha's hut) are located within the site of Jetavana Vihara. 

Stupa and Ashokan Pillar, Vaishali

In addition to the eight sacred shrines, some of the other important Buddhist sites of ancient India are: Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar; Junagarh and Valabhi in Gujarat; Snachi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh; Ajanta - Ellora in Maharashtra; Udayagiri, Lalitgiri and Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kanauj, Kaushambi and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh.

Griddhakuta Hills in Rajgir

With the decline of Buddhism, all the Buddhist shrines fell into neglect. They bore the burnt of invaders, and were either destroyed or plundered. The shrines in western India were however lucky. Being mostly in the shape of rock-cut caves, they were covered with natural growth and became out of the bounds for the destroyers. Most of the ancient shrines unearthed by the archaeologists and explorers have since been restored and developed as religious-cum-tourist centres.

Chalukya Shiva temple or Lad Khan temple

Lad Khan Temple Aihole / Image Credit

A small riverbank village in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka,  Aihole was in ancient times a centre of kingdom of early Chalukyas of Vatapi (now called Badami) who were prolific temple builders. 

Aihole is a town of temples and contains more than hundred structures.

Dating back to the 5th century AD. Lad Khan is the oldest temple in Aihole. Dedicated to Shiva, the temple is a specimen of of the Malaprabha style of architecture. Lad Khan Temple owns its name to a commander of the Bijapur Sultanate who once stayed there.

Nandi facing the shivalinga  / Image Credit 

Mallikarjuna Temple, Pattadakal

Mallikarjuna_Temple,_Pattadakal / Image Credit

Mallikarjuna Temple or Trilokeshwara Temple  is a temple in Pattadakal built by the Badami Chalukyas in the eighth century. Built by Trilokadevi, wife of the Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya II (reigned 733 - 744 AD),   the temple was built immediately after the Virupaksha Temple, which was built by Lokamahadevi, another wife of the Chalukya ruler., in 745 AD. 

Located on the Malaprabha river in Karnataka, Pattadakal is believed to be the site where Chalukyan rulers were crowned kings between the sixth and eighth centuries.

Trilokeshwara Temple bears a resemblance to Virupaksha Temple.  The temple has beautiful pillars and columns narrating scenes from mythology, legends, puranas and Ramayana and Mahabharata. There is a Nandi pavilion in the temple. 

Trilokeshwara Temple is part of the monuments in Pattadakal and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.