William Hawkins

One of the first Englishmen to come to the Mughal court during the reign of fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir, Captain William Hawkins was sent as ambassador by the British King James I to the Mughal court. Though favourbaly received by Jahangir, he was unsuccessful in securing the permit to settle at Surat due the opposition of the Portuguese and the merchants of Surat. He was given a mansab of 400 by Jahangir. 
 

Hawkins remained at the Mughal court from 1609 to 1611. He has left a valuable account of his experiences in India.

Adham Khan's Conquest of Malwa

                                Tomb of Adham Khan/ Wikimedia Commons

One of the powerful nobles of the Mughal empire during Akbar’s reign, Adham Khan was the son of Maham Anaga, the foster mother of the Mughal emperor Akabr. He was sent by Akbar to conquer Malwa in 1561 which he accomplished with oppressive measures.

According to some school of thought, one of the causes for the invasion of Malwa was Adham Khan’s infatuation for Rupmati, the queen of Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa. Baz Bahadur, who had hitherto neglected the administration of his kingdom, awoke from his slumber and faced the enemies but was defeated in the battle of Sarangpur and fled to Khandesh and Burhanpur. All his treasure and several other wives fell into the hands of Adham Khan whose methods to conquer Malwa and their oppression in the Malwa kingdom have been described by the contemporary historian Badauni, who had accompanied the Mughal army. 

When it was found that Rupmati ran the risk of being captured by Adham Khan, a eunuch of Baz Bahadur's harem caused wound to her with a sword. She later consumed poison and killed herself.

After hearing that Adham Khan, who was known for his contumacious spirit, had retained all the ladies, dancing girls, musicians and singers of Baz Bahadu and other spoils, Akbar was displeased and proceeded to Malwa. His movement was so fast that messengers sent by Maham Anaga were not able to communicate Adham Khan about the impeding visit of Akbar.

Irked at Adham Khan’s behaviour,  Akbar, who now wanted to come out of the influence of Maham Anaga and his son, appointed Shamsu-d din Muhammad Khan Atga as Prime Minister. This incensed Adham Khan so much that he murdered Atga. 

Unable to bear his handedness, Akbar got Adham Khan killed in Agra in 1562. His mother Maham Anaga who exercised undue influence on Akbar, died of anger and grief forty days after his son’s death.

Akbar, however, accorded due respect to both of them after their death and got them respectfully buried in a tomb in Mehrauli in Delhi.

Bhavabhuti, one of the greatest dramatists of ancient India

In importance, Bhavabhuti is second only to Kalidasa, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist. He resided in the court of Yasovarman of Kanauj in the early 8^th century. Three of his plays have survived: Malati and Madhava; The Deeds of the Great Hero (Mahavircharita); and “The Later Deeds of Rama” (Uttararamcharita).

Bhavabhuti’s greatness rests on his deep understanding of sorrow. As a matter of fact, in his treatment of the pathetic, according to the critics, he edges past even Kalidasa.

Malati and Madhava is a love story which tells the rescue of the heroine from the jaws of death for more than once.

Mahavircharita and Uttararamcharita tell the story of Lord Rama.

Bhavabhuti in his Uttararamcharita has concluded with the full reconciliation of Rama and Sita in place of the grim ending to the story in which Sita allows herself to be swallowed up by the earth to prove her innocence.

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Bhaskaravarman of Kamrup

A contemporary of Harshvardhan (Harsha) of Kanauj and Sasank, the Gauda king of Bengal, in the first half of the seventh century AD, Bhaskaravarman was the ruler of Kamarup in modern Assam. 

When Sasank, the arch-enemy of Harsha, was increasing the extent of his empire, Bhaskaravarman felt the need of checking his advance.  On the other hand, Harsha was looking for the opportunity to avenge the death of his elder brother and predecessor Rajyavardhana who was killed by the King of Bengal.  The common cause of the both resulted in an alliance between Harsha and Bhaskaravarman.

However, Sasank proved to be a formidable adversary. The combined enemies of Harsha and Bhaskaravarman failed to achieve any tangible results. It was after the death of Sasank that the Gauda kingdom of Karnasuvarna (in the Murshidabad district of West Bengal) became a part of the Kamarupa kingdom. 

Gondophernes: The Pahlava Ruler

                                                        Takht-i-Bahi monastery / Image Credit

Gondophernes was the most prominent and famous of the Pahlava or Parthian rulers who ruled north-western part of India towards the end of the 1^st century BC.  He was a great patron of Indian culture which can be gauged from the numerous coins found in the northwest of India. These coins also point to the wide extent of his suzerainty that included Kandhar, Kabul and Taxila. Gondophernes was probably responsible for the defeat of Hermaeus, the last of the Greek rulers in India.

His inscription has been found at the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bhai (Throne of Origins) in Pakistan.

 

Christian tradition has it that India’s first brush with Christianity took place during his reign by the efforts of the Christian apostle St. Thomas who is said to have visited his empire. However, truth of the legend does not find favour with some authorities who maintain that going by Gondophernes’ date he cannot be a contemporary of St. Thomas.

Gondophernes ruled for twenty years. His successors were weak and fought among themselves. Thus came the end of the Pahlava empire.

Art and Craft of Harappan Civilisation

Clay utensils of Harappan Civilization

Mahendravarman I: The Versatile Pallava Ruler

A contemporary of north Indian ruler Harshavardhan in the seventh century AD, Mahendravarman was one of the prominent kings of Pallava dynasty which had been ruling the region south of Krishna-Tungabhadra in South India since fourth century AD. Mahendravarman was an individual of versatile genius: an author, an architect, a painter, a musician and a soldier. 

Mahendravarman is known for introducing the cave style of temple architecture for which Pallavas are known all over the world.

Mahendravarman was the son of Simhavishnu who ascended the throne in the latter half of the sixth century AD; or to be more precise, 575 AD. From Simhavishnu’s time the history of Pallavas emerges from legend and dubious tradition and becomes more definite.

Mahendravarman’s accession to the throne signaled the growing strength of the Pallavas. It was the reign of Mahendravarman which saw the beginning of that famous struggle between the Pallavas and their sworn enemies, the Chalukyas of Vatapi (early western Chalukyas), who ruled north of them. The struggle which became necessary for the mastery of south India, lingered through the generations. During his reign the Pallava capital Kanchipuram was destroyed by western Chalukya king Pulakesin II.

In his early days Mahendravarman was a Jaina, but was converted to Shaivism by Appar, one of the most famous of the sixty-three Nayanars, the Shaiva poets of the Tamil country. This conversion was to a great measure responsible for the decrease in the royal patronage to Jainism in Tamil nadu.

Mahendravarman I, who assumed the significant title of Vichitrachitta, "curious-minded", was a writer of standing. He is credited with the authorship of the famous burlesque known as the Mattavilasa-prahasana. He had also authored another play Bhagavadajjuka. He had several titles such as Mattavilasa, ‘Chatrumalla’, ’Gunabhara’, ’Avnibhajana’, ’ Sankirna Jati’. 

Mahendravarman I was a great patron of art and architecture too. Under his instructions, some of the finest rock-temples at Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram (located in the Chengalpattu district in Tamil Nadu) were hewn out.