Niccolao Manucci: Venetian Traveller to Mughal Court

He was an Italian traveler whose voluminous memoirs entitled Storio Dor Mogor is one of the most invaluable sources of history of Mughal India. Running away from his hometown Venice at the age of 14 he travelled to Asia Minor and Persia before reaching India in 1653.

Manucci, who was a mercenary soldier, joined the services of Dara Shikoh, eldest son of Shah Jahan. He worked as an artilleryman in his army. After the defeat of Dara Shikoh in the war of succession to the Mughal throne by his brother Aurangzeb who put him to death in 1659, Manucci adopted medicine as his profession.

Manucci gives an eyewitness account of the Mughal Court.

Abdul Hamid Lahori, Court Chronicle of Shah Jahan

Abdul Hamid Lahori was a Muslim historian who was also the court chronicle of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal emperor. He was the author of Padshahnama, same title as that of Amin Qazwini’s book.

Also known as Badshahnama, Padshahnama describes the reign of Shah Jahan.

Nur Jahan: Powerful Queen of Mughal India

Nur Jahan was a favourite wife of Jahangir, the fourth Mughal Emperor. She was one of very few women who was part of decision making process in the affairs of the Mughal state. She had deep influence on Jahangir who took pride in saying that he had handed her the country in lieu of a cup of wine and few pieces of mutton. She was the first Mghal queen in whose name coins were struck. 

Daughter of a Persian immigrant, Mirza Giyas Beg of Teheran, Nur Jahan, born Mehr-un-Nissa, married Jahangir after the death of her first husband Sher Afghan (Ali Quli Istajlu), who was a Mughal officer posted in the province of Bengal. Sher Afghan was killed fighting Kutubuddin, the governor of Bengal, in 1607. Nur Jahan married Jahangir in 1611.  

After her marriage with Jahangir, she came to be known as Nur Mahal (Light of the Palace). Five years later she was bestowed the title of Nur Jahan (Light of the Palace) by the emperor. 

The contention of some that Jahangir was instrumental in the murder of Sher Afghan is disputed. 

Tombs of Sher Afghan and Qutubuddin In Burdwan in West Bengal / Image source

Being a favourite consort of Jahangir it was natural that important posts and positions in the state were given to her relatives while the emperor enjoyed wine and opium. Her father received high office and was given the title of Itmad- ud- Daulah. Her brother, Asaf Khan, became the prime minister of the empire. Asaf Khan’s daughter Mumtaz Mahal was married to Shah Jahan who later succeeded Jahangir.

As Nur Jahan grew more powerful, she invited the jealousy of other Mughal officers. Her relations with Khurram (Shah Jahan) became sour. She married off her daughter, Mihr-un-nissa Begum better known as Ladli Begum (from her first husband, Sher Afghan), to Shaharyar, another son of Jahangir in 1621, and pushed his claim to the Mughal throne. 

Under the influence of Nur Jahan who created a wedge between Jahangir and Khurram, the former deprived the later of all posts. Khurram rose in revolt but was defeated by the imperial forces in 1623.

Jahangir died in 1627. Nur Jahan survived him by 18 years and died in 1645. She was buried in a tomb at Shahdara, Lahore, which she herself got built during her lifetime.

Nur Jahan was a great patron of art. She built an elegant tomb for her father known as Itmad- ud- Daulah’s tomb located in Agra. This monument has the deep "imprint of the refined feminism of Nur Jahan".

Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi

Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi is a famous historical work of Medieval India. Also called Tuhfat-i-Akbar Shahi, it was written by Abbas Khan Sarwani on the instruction of Akbar. The work is useful for knowing more about Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler who defeated Mughal emperor Humayun, father of Akbar.

But for his untimely death of Sher Shah who drove Huayun out of India and the weaknesses of his successors, the nascent Mughal empire might have been relegated to the dustbin of history. Sarwani was connected by marriage with family of Sher Shah. Later historians of the Mughal period like Badauni and Nizamu-ddin drew heavily from Sarwani. 

Bahlul Khan Lodi: Founder of Lodi Dynasty

Bahlul (also written as Buhlol, Bahlol and Buhlul) Khan Lodi was the founder of the Lodi dynasty, the last of the five dynasties, the combination of which is known as Delhi sultanate. The Lodis, who were Afghan by race, ruled for seventy five years from 1451-1526 till their last ruler Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed by Babur in the First battle of Panipat in 1526 resulting in the establishment of Mughal empire in India.

Buhlul Lodi ruled for long thirty-nine years (1451-89). He was the governor of Lahore and Sirhind during the rule of Muhammad Shah of Sayyid dynasty. In 1451, Buhlul was given the throne of Delhi on a platter by Muhammad’s son Ala-ud-din Alam Shah, the last of the Sayyids. 

During Buhlul’s reign, Mahmud Shah of the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur tried to capture Delhi. He, however, failed in his attempt. Buhul compelled Ahmad Khan of Mewat, lsa Khan of Koil, Dariya Khan of Sambhal, Raja Pratap Singh of Mainpuri and Bhongaon, Mubarak Khan of Suket, Qutb Khan of Rewari, and the chiefs of Etawah, Chandwar and other districts of the Doab, to owe their allegiance to him. These chieftains were, however, not treated with iron hand by Buhul. As a result they readily submitted to the rule of Delhi Sultanate.

Buhlul’s biggest achievement was the conquest of the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur which was annexed into the Delhi Sultanate. His eldest surviving son Barbak Shah, was appointed governor of Jaunpur in 1486.

Buhlul Lodi died in l489, near the town of Jalali. His tomb is located adjacent to the shrine of the famous Sufi saint, Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Delhi, in Chirag Delhi area of South Delhi.

Kaiqubad (1287-90), Last Ruler of the Slave Dynasty

Before his death in 1287, Balban had nominated his grandson Kai Khusrav as his successor after his son Bughra Khan declined the offer. Kai Khusrav was the son of Muhammad (another son of Balban), who was killed in the fight with Mongols in 1285. But disregarding Balban’s wish, the nobles of the Slave dynasty placed Kaiqubad (Qaiqabad), son of Bughra Khan, on the throne.

Kaiqubad, brought up under the watchful eyes of Balban, himself a strict disciplinarian, was seventeen when he became Sultan. He soon plunged himself into debauchery. Real power of the kingdom came into the hands of Nizam-ud-din, son-in-law of Fakhr-ud-din, the Kotwal of Delhi. Confusion and chaos reigned supreme. Nizam-ud-din was poisoned by Kaiqubad when the former hesitated to obey the latter's diktat to transfer Nizam-ud-din to Multan. Matters were made worse by the struggle for supremacy between the nobles of the Turkish party and those belonging to the Khalji party.

Excess of wine and pleasure made Kaiqubad physically challenged. He was murdered in his palace of mirrors at Kilokhri by a Khalji noble whose father had been done to death on Sultan’s orders. Respect for sultan had reached to such a low that his corpse was thrown into the Jumna river. The Khalji nobles, under the leadership of Malik Jalal-ud-din Firuz, stamped their authority in the ongoing struggle. After killing Kayumars, an infant son of Kaiqubad, MalikJalal-ud-din Firuz ascended the Delhi Sultanate throne on the 13th June, 1290 at an age of seventy and the dynasty he founded came to be known as Khilji dynasty.

Balban: The Great Dictator of Delhi Sultanate

Balban's Tomb at Mehrauli Archaeological Park

After the death of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud of the Slave dynasty of Delhi Sultanate in 1266, the line of the rulers from the family of Iltutmish came to end. He was succeeded by his deputy Ghiasuddin Balban in whose hands the real power of the state resided even during his lifetime. 

Balban who was also father-in-law of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, probably murdered him to become the sultan. Slave dynasty was fortunate enough to have Balban’s accession at the time. This is because during the thirty years after the death of Iltutmish no worthy ruler, except Razia, and that too for a brief period, ascended the throne of Delhi sultanate. The rulers during the period were murdered by the frivolous slaves. This dealt a body-blow to the slave dynasty. The condition of the sultanate was such that a strong and stern ruler was the need of the hour. And he fit the bill well.

 

Since internal rebellions had to suppressed Balban took steps in the direction of strengthening the army which involved introduction of some changes in the armed forces and increasing their numerical strength. Balban meted out severest punishment to the Mewat Rajputs inhabiting the area round Alwar in Rajasthan. The Mewatis were danger to the order of the capital. After clearing the jungles in the vicinity of Delhi, ‘a hundred thousand males above twelve’ of them were murdered.  A fort at Gopalgir was built by Balban who put several posts near the city of Delhi in charge of Afghan officers.

In 1267 Balban crushed the brigands in the Doab who had their heydays in their strongholds at Kampil, Patiali and Bhojpur where Balban erected forts besides repairing the fort of Jalali. Balban also suppressed the rebellions in Katehr (now in Rohilkhand). The refractory hill tribes of the mountains of Jud were also suppressed by Balban.

Balban did not lose sight of the Mongol danger that was lurking in the north-west frontier of the kingdom. Balban’s cousin Sher Khan Sunqar was ably defending the frontier. However, Balban grew suspicious of him and got him murdered. His death left the field open for the Mongols to indulge in their incursions of the frontier tracts. Prince Muhammad, Sultan’s eldest son, was governor of Multan to check the Mongol menace. Bughra Khan, his second son, was placed in charge of the territories of Samana and Sunam. In 1279 they, together with  Malik Mubarak Bektars from Delhi, successfully repulsed the Mongol invasion.

However, in A.D. 1285 Mongols under their leader Tamar invaded Punjab. Prince Muhammad proceeded towards Lahore and Dipalpur and was killed during his fight against the Mongols. He was given the title of Shahid, "the Martyr" and came to be known as Khan-i-Shahid, (the Martyr Prince).

Crushing Tughril Khan’s rebellion in Bengal

In 1279, Tughril Khan, the Sultan's deputy in Bengal, rose in rebellion against him.

Balban sent an army under Amir Khan who was defeated by the rebel governor. This infuriated Balban so much that Amir Khan was hanged over the gate of Delhi on his orders. Another military campaign under Malik Targhi in the next year met the same fate. Now the Sultan himself decided to proceed to Bengal.  Accompanied by his son, Bughra Khan, he headed towards Bengal. Tughril Khan was killed. Bughra Khan was appointed governor of the Bengal province.

After an iron rule of about twenty-two years, Balban died in A.D. 1287. His tomb and that of his son Prince Muhammad (Khan-i-Shahid) are located in Mehrauli Archaeological Park in Delhi. The dilapidated tomb betrays no hint of Balban's fame as one of the most powerful rulers of medieval India. 

Kingship under Balban

During the weak rule of Balban’s predecessors, the institution of kingship had lost respect and there was danger of Sultans being considered as imbecile by the people. To restore the dignity of the crown, Balban a proponent of the dignified mode of living, etiquette and rituals, organized his court after the manner of the old Persian monarchs. This was done to give legitimacy to his rule which may be contested by the rebels due to the fact of his being a salve. During his rule the splendour and glory of the royal court reached heights and gave asylum to some fifteen exiled prices from central Asia. Ziauddin Barani, author of Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, writes, “Fear and awe of him took possession of all men`s hearts.”

Balban appointed only men of elite class to important posts. He ensured the strict observance of the etiquette of the court. Those who attended his court  were supposed to observe sizda (prostration before the sultan) and paibod (kissing his feet) (both un-Islamic practices). Balban was the first Indian ruler to introduce the celebration of the Persian new year (nao-roz) in India.

Balban called himself Naib-i-Khudai or Deputy of the God.

He created Diwan-i-Arz or the Department of Military Affairs.