Mumtaz Mahal (1593- 1631)

Mumtaz Mahal ("Jewel of the Palace") is the woman whose mausoleum is popularly known as Taj Mahal, arguably the most famous symbol to royal love in the world. Located in Agra in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, Taj Mahal was built by her husband Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal Emperor.

Originally named Arjumand Bano Begum, Mumtaz Mahal (name given to her by Shah Jahan) was the daughter of Asaf Khan, elder brother of Nur Jehan, wife of Mughal emperor Jehangir, father of Shah Jahan. Apart from her stunning beauty, Mumtaz was a kind hearted lady, also known as a patron of men of letters.

In 1612, Shah Jahan married Arjumand Bano who was his third wife, but his favorite. She bore him 14 children, though most of them died in infancy. Mumtaz died on June 17, 1631 in Burhanpur in childbirth at the age of 39. In order to immortalize the name of Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan ordered the building of Taj Mahal.

Khusrav Khan donning the role of Malik Kafur

Alauddin Khilji the second Sultan of Khilji dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, died in 1316. His general Malik Kafur, who unleashed a reign of terror by persecuting the sons and family members of the late Sultan, was in turn killed by another son of Alauddin Khilji, Mubarak Shah, who became the next Khilji sultan under the title of Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah. Like his father, who was under the influence of Malik Kafur, Mubarak Shah was infatuated with Khusrav Khan, a low-caste (Hindu) Baradu convert from Gujarat who was made the wazir, malik naib and Commander in Chief of the Khilji dynasty by the Sultan against the advice of his nobles.

In April 1320, Mubarak Shah was murdered by Khusrav Khan bringing the Khilji dynasty to an end. Khusrav Khan ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah and tried to strike a veritable reign of terror by murdering the relatives, friends and those loyal to the Khilji Sultan.

If historians like Barni, Yahiya Bin Ahmand Sirhindi, and Ibn Batutah are to be believed, Khusrav gave preferential treatment to the Hindus. This was resented by the Muslim nobles specially the Alali Nobles who invited Gazi Malik, the noble of Dipalpur, to put an end to the reign of Khusrav Khan. Gazi Malik defeated Khusrav at Delhi on the 5th September, 1320 and beheaded Khusrav. Gazi Malik became the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate under the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq and the dynasty, he founded, is known as Tughluq dynasty.

Akbar and His Concubines

As with case with many ancient and medieval cultures, in addition to their legal wives, the rulers have also kept concubines as well. And Mughal rulers were no exceptions. In most cases, these concubines’ served the same purposes as wives. However, they could not legally the men that they served.

These concubines also became the mothers of children of the Mughal monarchs. The children born of these concubines were treated on par with those born of the legal wives. Akbar was a famous keeper of many concubines some of whom bore children to him. Two of Akbar’s three sons, Murad and Daniyal were born of concubines. According to English traveller William Finch, Anarkali who have been portrayed in films and books as the valentine of Saleem (Later Jahangir the fourth Mughal Emperor) was the mother of Daniyal.

The concubines lived in an area which is known in Muslim culture as harem. The harem was not accessible for the male members.

Black Hole Incident of Calcutta

The ‘Black Hole’ was a tragic incident that happened in the run-up to the Battle of Plassey that took place in 1757. The incident served as casus belli for the invasion by the British on Murshidabad.

Siraj ud Daulah, the then Nawab of Bengal, resented to the interference by the East India Company in his province. He was also livid with the company’s abuse of the commercial privileges which was granted by the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar under the firman of 1717.

Though inexperienced and devoid of taking decisions, Siraj ud Daula set out to begin a military campaign against the English. During his military campaigns he captured Calcutta on 20^th June, 1756. Consequently, John Zephaniah Holwell, a narrator of the ‘Black Hole’ tragedy and a number of Europeans were taken prisoners who were confined in a chamber 18 feet by 14 inches, with only on window, throughout the hot and humid night of June in Calcutta. According to Holwell, they numbered about 165 or 170, and the next morning only about 16 came alive, the rest being suffocated to death. This event has been described by the British historians as the Black Hole tragedy.

Holwell’s account of Black Hole tragedy remained in vogue for about two centuries. However, Holwell’s account has been challenged in modern times. Authorities are of the opinion that only sixty prisoners met the death at a result of their confinement at the dungeon. And Siraj ud Daula was in no way personally responsible for the consequence of the incarceration of the prisoners which was arranged by his officers.

The First Anglo-Afghan War: A Disaster for Britain

William Brydon riding into Jalalabad/Wikipedia Commons

The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) caused the greatest misfortune that ever befell the British army and dealt a severe blow to their prestige in India.

With the fall of Napoleonic France in 1814, Russia had emerged as Britain’s potential rival by 1830s. India was the prized possession of the British Empire at that time. Russia has made its Asiatic ambitions clear. But to realize its ambition it would have to gain a diplomatic and military foothold in Afghanistan, an insignificant and impoverished tribal society in the early 19th century.

Instead of entering into an alliance with Afghanistan’s ruler, Dost Mohammad, Britain chose to back Shah Shuja, the deposed ruler of Afghanistan, who had been living in exile in India for three decades.

In 1837, Alexander Burnes, an envoy sent by  George Eden (Lord Auckland), the then Governor-General of India, reached Afghanistan. The Afghanistan’s ruler Dost Mohammad was willing to have the British as his ally but he sought British help in restoring the lost province of Peshawar to him from the Sikh leader Ranjit Singh.  Lord Auckland cited the doctrine of non-intervention in the affairs of the States for his inability to help Dost Muhammad. Consequently the negotiation, which was not conducted in right earnest, failed. Auckland was adamant on deposing Dost Mohammad who was a capable ruler. He chose to back Shah Shuja. Unable to secure British friendship, Dost Muhammad sought Russian help. Until treated insignificantly, Russian envoy Viktevitch was now received by him with favour.  

Now the stage was set for the inevitable war of the English with Afghanistan. Britain initially gained success. Under the supreme command of Sir John Keane, the British army occupied Qandahar in April 1839, stormed Ghazni on 23rd July and Kabul fell into their hands on 3rd August.  Shah Shuja was enthroned in Kabul by the British thirty years after he had lost the throne to Dost Mohammad. Dost Muhammad surrendered in 1840 and was sent to Calcutta as a prisoner.

However, Shah Shuja was not welcomed by the people of Afghanistan. They resented the stationing of the British troops in their own country.  Meanwhile the position of the British army became untenable with the rebellion of the populace. On the 2nd November, 1841, Captain Alexander Burnes was pulled out his house by a mob and murdered along with his brother Charles and lieutenant William Broadfoot.

The situation came to such a pass that British were left with no choice but to evacuate Afghanistan. However, on 6 January 1842, the retreat of the British troops and camp-followers, 16,500 men in all, began from Kabul. Of them only one, the British doctor Dr. Bbrydon, reached Jalalabad to tell the painful story of the destruction of the rest due to the attacks by the rebellious Afghans. The invincibility of the British Empire was shattered.

In 1842 Lord Auckland was replaced as Governor-General of India by Lord Ellenborough who released Dost Mohammad from prison and reinstalled him on the throne in Kabul.

Udham Singh (1899-1940)

Born on 26th December in Sunam Village in Sangrur district of the north-western Indian state of Punjab, Udham Singh was a great revolutionary. He avenged the infamous Jalianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar by murdering Michael O’Dwyer, who was the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab in 1919 when Brigadier General Reginald Dyer, the military commander of Amritsar had ordered the firing on the innocent people who have gathered here to protest the arrest of Congress leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satya Pal under Rowlatt Act.

Udham Singh killed O’Dwyer in London on 13th March 1940. He was arrested on the spot and sentenced to death on 21st July in the same year.

Muhammad Shah Rangila

Aurangzeb, the last great Mughal emperor, died in 1707. Muhammad Shah became Mughal emperor in 1719. During the interregnum, Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar, Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud-Daula ascended the Mughal throne. Jahandar Shah was murdered on the orders of Farrukhsiyar who had the support of the two powerful Mughal nobles Sayyid Abdullah and his brother Sayyid Husain Ali at that time. They are famous in history as Sayyid brothers, the King-makers.

In 1719, Farrukhsiyar were murdered in utter disregard of a Mughal emperor by Sayyid brothers. Rafi-ud-Darajat died of consumption in a few months. Rafi-ud-Daula was addicted to opium and died in 4 months. Sayyid brothers now chose Raushan Akhtar, a son of Jahan Shah (the fourth son of Bahadur Shah I), to be the emperor. Raushan Akhtar ascended the throne under the title of Muhamamd Shah in September 1719.

In the beginning Muhammad Shah was a puppet in the hands of Sayyid brothers who soon began to lose their grip over the Mughal polity. The Mughal emperor, with the support of Chin Qulich Khan or Nizam-ul-Mulk, hatched a conspiracy to get rid of them. In October 1720, Sayyid Husain Ali, then governor of Deccan, was killed. A month later, Sayyid Abdullah was made prisoner and later poisoned to death.

Muhammad Shah celebrating Holi ca. 1737 by Bhupal Singh Photo: Bodleian Library, University of Oxford

When Muhamamd Shah ascended the throne he was only 17 years old. He was given to pleasure. He loved to spend his time in the company of eunuchs and ladies of the harem. This earned him the nickname of Rangila (merrymaker). His favourite courtesan was Gulab Bai. Watching elephant fights in the morning was his favourite pastime. In the evening, he enjoyed the company of jugglers. 

Muhammad Shah Making Love. ca. 1735 Photo: British Library, London

It was during the reign of Muhamamd Shah that Nadir Shah, the ‘Napolean of Iran’ invaded India in 1739. Muhammad Shah died in 1748 and was succeeded to the throne by his only son Ahmad Shah.