Prostitution in Ancient India

There are evidences of a culture of prostitution in ancient India.

In ancient India there was certainly a class of women to whom rules and restriction that need to be adhered to by the high-caste ladies did not apply. According to Vatsyayana’s Kama Sutra, a class of courtesans (vesya, ganika) was held in high social esteem because of their graces of form and cultural accomplishments.

Prostitutes were famous for their beauty and other cultural accomplishments, as well as their wealth and luxury. In fact, the honour bestowed on them is comparable to the Aspasias and Phrynes of classical Greece.  She was honoured by the king and praised by the learned. Ambapali, the famous hetaera in ancient India, was treated by the Buddha with consideration .

A typical prostitute was educated. The authors of erotics in ancient India suggest that she must study  “the sixty- four arts”. Among the arts in which the prostitute should be thoroughly trained included dancing, music, singing, acting, the composition of poetry, flower –arrangement and garland making and many more. However, studying all the sixty arts was not possible.

Royal patrons of Jainism

Samprati, grandson of Asoka, the great Mauryan Emperor, had embraced Jainism. His contribution to Jainism is similar to that of Asoka to Buddhism. In the latter half of the first century B.C. King Kharavela of Orissa professed Jainism and became its great patron. It is interesting to note that though Kharavela had embraced Jainism, which stresses on non-violence, he was an imperialist to the core and entered in sanguinary conflicts with his adversaries all over India. He is credited with setting up several images and his chief queen granted a rock-cut cave to the Jain monks.

From the fifth century AD onwards, famous rulers of royal dynasties of South India, such as the Eastern Chalukyas, the Western Gangas, the Kadambas and the Rashtrakutas were patrons of Jainism. Amma II of Eastern or Vengi Chalukyas  is known to have patronized the Jaina monks.  

Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta dynasty became a Jain monk and patronized Jinasena, author of Adipuarana.

Annexation of Kabul by Akbar

In  1581, Akbar was faced with one of the most critical periods of his reign when Mirza Muhammad Hakim, the governor of Kabul, advanced to Lahore.  Muhammad Hakim, Akbar’s half brother, was an orthodox and ambitious ruler who was planning to seize the Mughal throne for himself.  He was supported in his bid by some discontented officers of the Mughal court such as Khwaja Mansur.

Thereupon Akbar proceeded to Kabul from his capital on 8^th February, 1581 with about 50, 000 cavalry, 500 elephants and great number of infantry.  He reached Kabul on 9^th August and defeated Mirza Muhammad Hakim and compelled him to submit. Hakim, however, was reinstated on vow of loyalty to the emperor. After the death of Muhammad Hakim in July 1586, the province of Kabul was formally annexed to the Mughal Empire.

According to Smith, Akbar’s victory of Kabul “may be regarded as the climax of his career”. 

Akbar's Mausoleum

Akbar’s tomb is at Sikandara, situated on the outskirts of the Agra City. Housing his mortal remains, the mausoleum was built by the emperor himself during his lifetime. The mausoleum was finished in 1613 during the reign of Jahangir. 

Indo-Sino War 1962: A Retrospect

October 20 marks the 50th anniversary of China's invasion on the Indian forces over the Himalayan frontier in 1962. During the war the Chinese forces advanced as far as the plains of Assam in India.

Since then the border between these tow Asian giants has been a bone of contention between these two countries. Fourteen rounds of talks have not been able to yield any significant results. Though another war seems unlikely, friction on the border is frequent and it will take time that complete normalcy is restored in the relations between two countries.

Below is a look at what happened during the Indo-Sino war in 1962.

When India became independent in 1947, its relation with the Communist China was on friendly terms. But it was not to be so for long due to Chinese attitude towards Tibet, then an autonomous state under the suzerainty of China. India, on the other had, had a friendly relation with Tibet.  However, when China invaded Tibet in 1950 and latter’s autonomy came to an end. This created a sense of apprehension in India as China was showing signs of its expansionist policy.

Indian troops during a military training drill in  Assam - Indo-Sino War 1962

All was well till Panch Sheel  (Five Principles as the basis of their friendly relations) was signed between these two countries on 20^th April, 1954. All these changed when China, in utter disregard of the Panch Sheel, published maps where 132, 090 square kilometers of Indian territory were included wrongly. The situation came to a head when China overran Tibet in 1959 and Dalai Lama, the spiritual head of Tibet, and a large number of Tibetans were forced to take refuge in India. Meanwhile China occupied approximately 31,000 square kilometers of Indian territory.

Chinese troops during the Indo-Sino War 1962.

On 20^th October, 1962, China embarked on an attack on Ladakh and NEFA (North East Frontier Agency), to the north of Assam. Indian soldiers fought bravely but were vastly outnumbered. As a result they were not able to offer a significant resistance in NEFA (Now Arunachal Pradesh). Chinese captured Bomdi La in Arunachal Pradesh and also occupied portions of Ladakh claimed by them.   

However, on 21^st November, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and thus the war came to an end.   

Mattavilasa Prahasana, The Delightful Farce

Mattavilasa Prahasana (the Sport of Drunkards) was written by the versatile Pallava ruler and scholar Mahendravikramavarman or Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of Harsha.

Set in the Pallava capital of Kanchipuram, this little farce treats of a drunken Shaivite ascetic named Kapali or Satysoma, who loses the skull which he uses as begging bowl and accuses a Buddhist monk Nagasena of stealing it. After a drawn -out argument involving satirical dialogue, in which other dissolute mendicants of various persuasions and both sexes are involved, it is found that the skull has been stolen by a dog. Replete with Rabelaisian humour, this short one-act play in Sanskrit throws a flood of light on the life of the 7^th century India.

Last Days of Chandragupta Maurya

                                        Chandragiri Hills, Karnataka

If Jaina tradition is to believed, Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the large Mauryan empire, in his old age, abdicated the throne and became a Jaina monk. 

He retired to Shravanabelagola (presently in the Hasan district of Karnataka), with his teacher the Jaina Saint, Bhadrabahu. In accordance with the beliefs of Jainism, he fasted to death there and today the place is a famous religious destination for the Jain pilgrims. 

The hill where Chandragupta spent his last days is still known as Chandragiri.