Edwin Arnold: The Light of Asia

Edwin Arnold’s main fame to claim is his magnum opus The Light of Asia, a lengthy poem on the Buddha’s life. An English poet and journalist, Edwin Arnold used Lalitavistara, one of the earliest Mahayana texts, to write the above-mentioned work which became hugely popular in the 19th century.

Slavery in Vijayanagar Empire

Slavery existed in the 16th century Vijayanagar Empire. There are references to besabaga or the sale of human beings during the period. The Vijayanagar inscriptions and the accounts left by the foreign travellers to the kingdom make reference to both male and female slaves.

The condition of the salves was governed by humane regulations and they could not be ill-treated. Italian traveler Nicolo Conti visiting India in the early fifteenth century, says, “They have a vast number of salves, and the debator who is insolvent is everywhere adjudged to be the property of his creditor.” On the whole the masters treated them with kindness and consideration.

Francois Bernier: French Traveller to the Mughal Court

Francois Bernier was a French Traveller to the Mughal Empire in the reign of fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. He was a physician by profession. He was attached to the court of Shah Jahan and was witness to the fierce war of succession among the sons of Shah Jahan. His History of the Late Rebellion in the States of the Great Mughal, describing the war of succession, was published in 1670.

After the battle of Samugah that took place in 1658 between Dara Shikoh, the heir apparent, and Aurangzeb and Murād Bakhsh, other sons of Shah Jahan, Bernier successively joined the services of Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber, the Portuguese at Goa and Sutan Abul Hassan Qutb Shah of Golconda. He later moved to Madras where he died in 1717. His book, Travels in the Mughal Empire, is one of the most valuable sources of the Mughal Empire.

Bernier, a physician by profession, was an eye-witness to the scene in which Dara was paraded in a most undignified manner on the streets of Delhi on 29th August 1659 before being killed on the next day.

He translated French works into Persian for Danishmand Khan, a scholar in the courts of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.  Danishmand Khan had a fascination for European sciences and philosophy  which were taught to him by Bernier who explained him the medial discoveries of William Harvey (1578-1657) and Jean Pecquet (1622-74) as well as the philosophy of Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) and Desartes (1596-1650),

His book, Travel in the Mughal Empire, is one of the most valuable sources of the history of the Mughal empire.

Hair styles in Harappan Civilization

Women, in Indus Valley Civilization also known as Harappan Civilization, wore far more elaborate hairstyles than their men folk. They used to take special care of their hair. Some of the women had a plait tied with a bow at the end. The discovery of the statue of dancing girl from Mohenjadaro attests to the pony tail, so common at the present day.

The men in the Harappan civilization were used to different styles of hair dressing. They used to part hair in the middle and tied it with a bullet. Sometimes the hair was gathered up in a bun or coiled in a ring on top of the head. The crawling child depicted on a clay figure from Mohenjadaro show that curly hair was also in vogue. Men used to trim their beards and shaved the upper lips. There are traces of completely shaven faces with a small beard on the chin. Short beards were preferable.

Caste system in Vedic Period

There was already a class division in the tribal structure of the Aryans when they entered India. However the social divisions became more prominent in the Vedic period due to the racial discriminations between the Aryans and non-Aryans, who after being defeated by the former were treated as Dasas, Dasyus and shudras. Gradually the tribal society of the Aryans were divided into three classes or groups –the priest (Brahmanas), warrior (Kshatriyas) and peasant (vaishyas).

The purusha shukta or creation Hymn of the Rigveda (X, 90, 12) says that Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras originated respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Purusha or Creator. This hymn is taken to be the root of caste system in India. But initially it was varna (literary means colour) and referred to the person of a particular profession, and not of particular birth.

But in the hymns of the Rigveda rigid restriction typical of castle in its mature form is not evident. There is no trace of any restriction on marriage, food and drinks. There were different classes and professions but none, not even the priestly or warrior classes were hereditary. Any person, irrespective of his Varna, who possessed the requisite qualifications, could officiate as a priest and anyone could join the army. In one Rigvedic family the father, mother and the son followed three different vacations viz, those of a poet, a grinder of corn and a physician. Thus if in one family the occupations of the son, the father and the mother were different, a hereditary caste system based on different kinds of avocations were surely absent in the Vedic age.

Chauth and sardeshmukhi: Two important taxes in the Maratha taxation system

Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the two most important taxes in the taxation system of the powerful Maratha state founded by brilliant Maratha leader Shivaji (1627-1680). 

According to Mahadev Govind Ranade, a famous Indian scholar and freedom fighter, chauth was a military tribute that was levied as a quid pro quo for protection against the invasion of a third power. But eminent historian Jadunath Sarkar does not ascribe to this view. According to him, chauth, 25% tax on revenue or produce, was realized from the alien territories to save themselves from the unwelcome presence of the Maratha soldiers and civil underlings. Shivaji was not under obligation to guard the territory from foreign invasion or internal disorder. 

According to another authority S. G Sardesai, chauth was a military tribute paid by the conquered or hostile territories. Since Shivaji was the hereditary sardeshmukh (Chief Headmand) of Maharashtra, he demanded an additional levy of 10 percent known as sardeshmukhi. Historian Ishwari Prasad is of the opinion that desai is the corrupt form of the Sanskrit word deshswami also called deshmukh. The sardeshmukh stood above many desais, and deshmukhs were under the control of the sardeshmukh. Sardeshmukh was paid for his services and this payment was called sardeshmukhi. Shivaji claimed to be the hereditary sardeshmukh of his country.

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat

         Champaner’s Jama Masjid, built by Mahmud Begada/Wikimedia Commons

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat was founded by Zafar Khan, who was appointed governor of Gujarat in 1391 by the ruler of Delhi Sultanate, with the title Muzaffar Khan. Zafar Khan was son of Sadharan, a Jat convert to Islam. Firuz Shah Tughluq was married to Sadharan’s sister. Muzaffar Khan remained loyal to Delhi sultanate and was able to suppress the rebellions of Muslim and Hindu chieftains. Though deposed by his son Tatar Khan in 1403-4, he was restored to the throne by his uncle, Shams Khan Dandani, who poisoned Tatar Khan.

Muzaffar proclaimed his independence as Muzaffer Shah in 1407. After his death in 1411 the throne passed on to Shihabuddin Ahmad Shah who ruled for thirty-one years. During his reign, Ahmad Shah (1411-42), who was son of the dead Tatar Khan, was engaged in continuous warfare and consolidated the Gujarat Sultanate. In 1411 he founded a new walled city which he named Ahmedabad. He built the Jama Masjid in Ahmedabad in 1424. 

Ahmad Shah was succeeded by Muhammad Shah (1442-51), who was followed by Qutubuddin Ahmad Shah II (1451-59). Fath Khan, who became ruler of Gujarat Sultanate at a young age of thirteen as Mahmud Shah (1459-1511), is considered to be the greatest ruler of Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat. Mahmud Shah, also known as Mahmud Begada, died in November 1511. Mahmud was said to have a long beard that reached his girdle, and he tied his very long moustaches behind his head. Mahmud’s successor, Muzaffar II died in 1526. Bahadur Shah who ruled from 1526 to 1537 was the last important ruler of the dynasty.

Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Akbar in 1573. Muzaffar Shah III was the last ruler of the Gujarat Sultanate.