Iltutmish: the Real Founder of Delhi Sultanate

Shamsuddin Iltutmish, born in a tribal community of Ilbari in Turkestan, was the real founder of the Slave Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, though he was technically the third ruler of the dynasty. At the time of Qutab-ud-din’s death in 1210 AD, he was the governor of Badaun. After the death of Qutub-Ud-Din Aibak (founder of Slave Dynasty), the Chihalgani (Group of Forty) put Aram Shah as the next ruler. The relation of Aram to Qutub-Ud-Din is in the realm of debate. Aram Shah turned out to be an inept ruler. Iltutmish or (Altmash) was invited by the nobles of delhi to replace Aram who was defeated in the plain of Jud near Delhi. An intelligent and wise person Iltutmish made Delhi the capital of Delhi Sultanate.

The first ten years of Iltutmish’s reign was devoted to consolidating his position which was challenged by his rivals-particularly Tajuddin Yalduz (successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni) and Nasiruddin Qubacha (the Governor of Uch and Multan). Iltutmish defeated both of them in 1216-17, and thus made his position secure.

The reign of Iltutmish saw the coming of the Mongol fury in Central Asia under the leadership of Chengiz Khan, the Mongolian ruler, who had occupied Peking in 1215 and conquered Transoxiana in 1220. Iltutmish must be credited for his diplomatic skill. He saved the nascent kingdom of Slave Dynasty from the menace of the Mongol invasion. The fear of Chengiz khan was such that Iltutmish did not embark on any military expedition till the death the death of Chengiz khan in 1227.

After the Mongol threat subsided, Iltutmish recaptured Multan and Bengal in 1227-28 and became successful in reasserting his authority in Bengal and Bihar in 1229, and captured Ranthambhor and Mandor in Rajasthan. In 1229, he received a deed of investiture from the Abassid Caliph of Baghdad, becoming the first Sultan of Delhi to secure this recognition. The event marked the formal recognition of Iltutmish's independent position as a Sultan as also of the Delhi Sultanate and as a member of the world fraternity of Islamic states. The Turkish rulers sought to secure recognition from the Caliph. The recognition from Calipah was instrumental in legalizing their rule among the orthodox and this also enhanced their prestige as Sultans.  

Iltutmish was the first Sultan of Delhi who issued regular currency and declared Delhi as the capital of his empire.

Iltutmish had a group of faithful slaves to protect him. This group which included 40 Turkish and non-Turkish nobles, was known as Chalisa  or Amir-i-Chahalgani (mentioned at the outset), or The Forty. This group was later liquidated by Balban.

Vasavadatta of Subandhu

Subandhu is one of the greatest writers of Sanskrit prose literature. There is a divergence of opinions among the experts about the exact dating of this great prose writer who is known for his ornate style. However, taking into account the different sources we can come to the conclusion that he probably flourished in the late 6th and early 7th century AD.

Subandhu is known by his only work, named after its heroine Vasavadatta. Vasavadatta tells of the vicissitudes of her love for the prince Kandarpaketu. The story of Vasavadatta, however, ends on a happy note. This masterpiece of Sanskrit prose literature is perhaps the first work in the language that has referred to Chess or similar game. Subanndhu is the master of the language.

Tripartite Struggle over Kanauj

                                                    Tripartite Struggle

Since the accession of Harshavadhana or Harsha in 606 AD, Kanyakubja (the modern Kanauj in the state of Uttar Pradesh) was to be one of the largest and most prosperous cities of North India till the coming of Muslims. Not much is known about the kingdom of Kanauj after Harsha’s death in 647 AD resulting in a great confusion due to the absence of his heirs. 

Kanyakubja came for a short period under the hands of an usurper, Arunasva who attacked Wang Xuance who had come to the court of Harsha as ambassador of the Chinese emperorTang Taizong. However, Wang Xuance, with the help of an army from Tibet and Nepal, succeeded in capturing Arunasva who was taken back to China to spend his days in attendance on the Tang Emperor. 

About AD 730 we find a famous king named Yasovarman establishing a kingdom at Kanauj. His invasion of Gauda (Bengal) formed the subject of the Prakrit poem Gaudvadha (Slaying of the king of Bengal), composed by Vakapatiraja in the eighth century AD. After Yasovarman, three kings, namely Vijrayudha, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha, ruled over Kanauj between close of the eight century till the second decade of the ninth century. Talking advantage of the weakness of these Ayudha rulers and attracted by the immense strategic and economic potentialities of the kingdom of Kanauj, the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Bhinmal (Rajasthan), the Palas of Bengal and Bihar and the Rashtrakutas of the Manyakheta (Maharashtra) fought against each other with a view to having control over the area.  

This tripartite struggle for Kanauj lingered for almost two centuries and ultimately ended in favour of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Nagabhata II who made the city the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom, which ruled for nearly two centuries. Kanyakubja was plundered by Mahmud Ghazni who made seventeen raids on India between 1001 and 1027.

Shankaracharya: Greatest Hindu Theologian

Shankaracharya is one of the giants of Hindu philosophy, a thinker who had--and who still has--a profound influence on Indian thought.

image source: sringeri.net

Shankaracharya, or Adi Shankaracharya, was born at Kaladi, presently a village in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. One of the greatest Hindu philosophers and teachers of the post Gupta period, he travelled the length and breadth of India disputing with the Buddhists.

Shankaracharya is said to have lived from 788 – 820. During his short life span, he did much to popularize devotion of Shiva among the people of India. He composed extensive commentaries on the Brahma Sutras of Badarayans and the chief Upanishads, Bhagwat Gita and founded an order of Hindu monks to carry on his work.

For Shankara all the Vedic literature was sacrosanct and unquestionably true. He succeeded in harmonizing the paradoxes in the Vedic literature. Shankara maintained that the only reality was Brahman, the impersonal world soul of the Upanishads with which the individual soul is identical. In fact his Brahman is not really different from the void or the nirvana of the Mahayana Buddhism. Hence, he is also called a crypto Buddhist by his opponents.

The doctrine of Shankaracharya is often known as advaita (‘allowing no second’ i. e. pure monism) or kevaladvaita (strict monism).

Apart from being one of the greatest minds of the world, Shankaracharya was an able organizer. He established four famous monasteries at Sringeri (in Chikmagalur district Karnataka) Dwarka (in Jamnagar district of Gujarat), Puri in Orissa and Badrinath on the snowy heights of the Himalayas in the state of Uttrakhand.

Shankaracharya died at a comparatively early age at Kedarnath in Uttarakhand. His place in Hinduism can be compared to that of Saint Thomas Aquinas in the Roman Catholic Church.

How Buddhism Came to Tibet

In ancient times Tibet was not an isolated region as it is today. It lay in the much frequented route from China and Nepal. In the seventh century AD, Buddhism was introduced to Tibet by Srong-tsan Gampo, one of the most illustrious kings of Tibet.

Gampo was married to Princesses Wen Cheng from China and another Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal. It was under the influence of his two wives that he was attracted to Buddhism. In China and Nepal Buddhism had already made its mark. Gampo is credited with introducing in Tibet Indian alphabets. This was the beginning of a new culture and civilisation in that land.

Many Buddhist from Tibet, as in the case of China, came to India. Buddhist monks from Tibet came to study at the universities of Nalanda, Vikramshila and Odantapuri. As a reciprocation, many Indian Buddhist visited Tibet. In the eighth century AD from Nalanda (a famous centre of learning in ancient Bihar) Buddhist monk Padmasambhava went to Tibet and succeeded in converting the land into Buddhism.

The Pala rulers of Bengal (Bihar was included in Bengal at that time) who were great patrons of Buddhism, contributed a lot to reform Buddhism in Tibet. Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thunderbolt) form of Buddhism was established in Tibet in the eleventh century AD as a result of missions sent from the Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila in Bihar. Vajrayana is synonymous with Tantric Buddhism. Great Buddhist monk Atish Dipankar from Bengal, who visited Tibet in the 11th century during the reign of Nayapala, is still venerated there.

Many Buddhist works have been translated into Tibetan. Tanjur and Kanjur are the two classical Tibetan translations of Buddhist sacred texts .

Ram Raja Mandir (Temple of King Ram )

Ram Raja Mandir, a palace-turned-temple, is located at Orchha, a town in Niwari district of of Madhya Pradesh. This is the only temple in the world where Lord Ram is worshipped as a king. So the name Ram Raja (king) Temple. Orcha was the seat of power of the princely state of the same name.

An interesting legend is attached to the worshipping of Ram as King. The legend has it that in 1600 AD queen of King Madhukar Shah, the third Bundela ruler of Orchha and contemporary of Mughal Emperor Akbar, brought idols of Lord Rama and Lord Ganesha from Ayodhya to the capital. The idol of Ram was supposed to be installed in the Chaturbhuj Temple. The idol was kept at the palace as the Chaturbhuj Temple was yet to be completed. Thereupon after the completion of the Chaturbhuj Temple, the idol that was to be installed in the new temple did not move. This was construed as a divine miracle and the palace was turned into a temple. This is the reason that the idol of Ram faces the palace not the temple.

Since then Lord Rama is given a ‘guard of honour’ in place of aarti. The government of Madhya Pradesh has also recognized Ram as a king and as such has placed jawans who give guard of honour to King Ram. In Orcha none is given guard of honour as Ram is the King here.

The two towers built on the corridors of the Ram Raja Mandir are the centre of attraction for the people. The tunnels underneath these towers were used by the members of the royal family to move outside.

Bindusara, Slayer of Foes

After a rule of 24 years, Chandragupta Maurya, the first Mauryan Emperor, was succeeded by his son Bindusara. According to Jain tradition, Bindusara's mother was Durdhara. The Greek historian Athenaeus calls him Amitrochates (Sanskrit Amitraghata “Slayer of Foes” or Amitrakhada “Devourer of Foes”). It is not known how he got the title of Amitrochates. 

Bindusara was the father of Asoka, the greatest ruler of India. The Jain scholar Hemachandra, the court poet of the Chalukyas of Anhilwara, and the Tibetan historian Taranatha mention that Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, was also prime minster of Bindusara. 

Bindusara maintained friendly relations with the Hellenic world that had been established in the later days of his father. According to Athenaeus, Bindusara requested the Syrian king Antiochus I “to present him sweet wine, dried figs and a philosopher”. Thereupon, the Seleucid king of Syria sent him the figs and wine and replied , “The Greek law forbids a philosopher to be exported.” Pliny states that Ptolemy Philladelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his ambassador to India. 

Bindusara had a large family. The Fifth Rock Edict issued by Ashoka states that he had many brothers and sisters. Two of these brothers are named in Divyadana as Susima and Vigatasoka, whom the Sri Lankan Chronicles name Summan and Trishya; the former was Asoka’s step brother. Asoka’s mother was named Subhadrangi or Dharma, and Trishya was his youngest brother. Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana (also named Susima) as his Viceroy at Taxila and Asoka at Ujjaini. The Divyadana tells the story of a revolt in Taxila. When it went out of control for Sumana or Susima, Bindusara deputed Asoka to restore order.