The Buddha has two kinds of disciples – lay worshippers (upasakas) and monks (bhikkus or shramanas). The latter were organized into the Sangha or congregation. The membership of the Sangha was open to all, male or female above twenty years of age and who were free from leprosy, consumption and other infections diseases. However, slaves, soldiers and debtors were not allowed to enter the Sangha without the permission of their superior. The admission of Prajapati Gautami, the widowed stepmother of the Buddha, to the Sangha, at the innstance of Ananda, one of chief disciples and consatant companion of the Buddha, marked the beginninng of an order of Buddhist nun. The Buddha had reservations on women's entry innto Sangha and even predicted that allowing women to become nun will make the survival of his teachings difficult. Anyone from the age of eight might become a member of Sangha. However in order to become full member of the Order, one has to be at least 20 years old. There were no caste restrictions. The sangha was governed democratically and was empowered to enforce discipline amongst its members. The life of monks and the nuns was strictly governed by laws and the ten commandments, and there was no room for personal likes or dislikes. However, the great defect of the Sangha system was the absence of a central coordinating authority. The Sangha, founded by the Buddha, still exists in its original for in Mayanmar, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Amongst the most famous Bhikkhus at the time of the Buddha were; Sariputta, who was profound scholar of the dhamma; Moggallana, who had the greatest supernatural powers; Ananda, Maha Kassapa, the president of the Buddhist Council held at Rajagriha soon after the Buddha’s death; Upali, master of Vinaya; Anuruddha, master of right Mindfulness; and Rahula, the Buddha’s son.
This blog is a comprehensive and in-depth guide to the events, people and places throughout the history of India
Friday, November 12, 2010
Sunday, November 7, 2010
Military Conquests of Jahangir
At the beginning of his reign in 1606, Jahangir has to face the rebellion of his son Khusrau in Lahore. Khusrau has the blessings of some of the powerful nobles of the empire. Khusrau’s rebellion was personally suppressed by Jahangir. Khusrau was captured, blinded, confined and subsequently killed by Khurram (name of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal Emperor, before his ascension to the Mughal Throne) in 1622.
The fifth Sikh Guru Arjan, who had given shelter to Khusrau at Taran Taran, was fined. When he refused to pay the fine, he was executed by Jahangir. This was an unwise political decision because this sowed the seeds of acrimonious relations between the Mughals and the Sikhs.
The first military campaign undertaken by Jahangir was against Rana Amar Singh, son of Rana Pratap of Mewar. The Mughal expeditions sent against Mewar in 1606 and 1608-09 proved indecisive, but in 1613-14 the campaign led by Khurram (third son of Jahangir) proved decisive and Rana Amar Singh submitted to the Mughals in 1615. Jahangir offered most liberal terms to Mewar and thus ended a long struggle between Mewar and the Mughals. The emperor installed two life-size marble statues of Rana Amar Singh and his son Karan in the garden of his palace at Agra. However, the glory and pride of Mewar was gone.
Jahangir pursued Akbar’s plan of territorial expansion in the Deccan. The first target was a half-conquered Nizam Shahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar. However, during the reign of Jahangir the situation in Ahmadnagar had undergone a sea change for the better thanks to the untiring efforts and ability of the Abyssinian Prime Minister Malik Ambar. From 1608 onwards a number of military expeditions were sent by Jahangir against Ahmadnagar but in spite of the expenditure of millions of rupees and loss of thousand of lives, the Mughal frontier in the Deccan did not advance a single mile beyond the limits achieved in 1605.
Subjugation of the Kangra Fort was another military achievement by Jahangir. The fort surrendered to the Mughal rule on November 16, 1620. Jahangir visited the fort next year and ordered the slaughter of a cow here and the construction of a mosque within the fort.
The greatest failure of Jahangir’s reign was the loss of Kandahar to Persia. Kandahar was the bone of contention between the Mughals and the Persians. Shah Abbas of Persia (1587-1629), one of the greatest rulers of his time, outwardly professing friendship towards the Mughals, captured Kandahar in June 1622. The loss of Kandahar dealt a severe blow to the Mughal prestige in Central Asia.
Saturday, November 6, 2010
Contribution of Jainism to Indian culture
Ranakpur Jain Temples |
In the early centuries of the Christian Era, the Jains (like their Buddhist counterparts) constructed stupas adorned with railings, gateways with carved figures and pillars. The image of a Tirthankara (ford maker, one of the 24 teachers of Jainism) from Lohanipur (Patna) dating back to the Mauryan period is one of the earliest Jaina figures. The Hathigumpha cave of Kharvela (with its famous inscription) and the Khandagiri and Udaigiri caves of the state of Orissa contain early Jaina relics.
During the Kushana period Mathura was a great centre of Jaina art. A votive plaque (ayapatta) depicting the cross-legged naked figure of a Tirthankara is really wonderful. The practice of making Jaina images continued throughout the Gupta period and afterwards. The gigantic statues of Bahubali (called Gometashvara) at Sharvana Belgola and Karkalla, both in Karnataka are real wonders.
Located in Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu, Sittanavasal Cave is home to some of the best cave paintings of India. Sittanavasal is distorted form of Siddhanivasan meaning abode of Siddhas saints. An inscription written in Brahmi script and belonging to 3rd century BC has been found here. According to the inscription, these cave temples were constructed by Jain monks. The Paintings of tehe cave temples were made in frescoe technique.
The Jain temples were constructed at all places of pilgrimage. The Temples at Ranakpur, near Jodhpur in Rajasthan and the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu in the state of Rajasthan are the products of superb craftsmanship.
The Jain tower in the fort of Chittor in Rajasthan is another specimen of architectural engineering. Innumerable manuscripts in palm leaves were written down and some of them were painted with gold dust. These have given rise to a new school of painting known as the “Western Indian School’
The Jainism has played a very significant role in the development of language, philosophy, architecture, sculpture and painting in India. It never became a dominant religion, nor was it embraced by a large number of people, and it never crossed the frontiers of India, but its presence in Indian art and culture was always felt and admired. The same is true to this day.
Wednesday, November 3, 2010
Chittor Conquest of Ala-ud-din Khilji
Being an imperialist Ala-ud-din thought of sending an expedition to Chittor, ruled by Rana Ratan Singh at that time. However according to several Rajput sources and Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmavat, the principal reason of Ala-ud-din’s invasion of Chittor was to acquire Rata Singh’s queen Padmini who was of exquisite beauty. The story of Padmini does not seem plausible because it is not explicitly mentioned in any contemporary sources. Even the celebrated poet and writer Amir Khusrau, who accompanied Ala-ud-din during this expedition, does not mention anything about the episode.
Durig the siege of Chittor the Rajputs showed exemplary valour. Their two brave leaders, named Gora and Badal, showed utmost bravery. But the army of Chittor was no match for the organized strength of Delhi Sultanate. After a long siege of eight moths, Chittor was captured by Ala-ud-din, who renamed the city Khizrabad, after the name of his eldest son, Khizr Khan. Rajput women preferred death to dishonor and performed Jauhar (self immolation). According to Tod, “that horrible rite, the Jauhar, where the females are immolated to preserve them from pollution or captivity. The funeral pyre was lighted within the ‘great subterranean retreat’, in chambers impervious to the light of the day, and the defenders of Chittor beheld in procession the queens, their own wives and daughters, to the number of several thousands. The fair Padmini closed the throng….They were conveyed to the cavern, and the opening closed upon them, leaving them to find security from dishonor in the devouring element”.
According to Amir Khusrav, 30000 Hindus were killed followed by demolition of many temples.
Tuesday, November 2, 2010
Ranthambhore Expedition of Ala-ud-din Khilji
Ala-ud-din was the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate (the combined period of five dynasties from 1206 to 1526). He succeeded to the throne in 1296 by killing his uncle and father-in-law Jalal-ud-din Firuz, who founded the Khilji Dynasty in 1290 by murdering Kaiquabad, the last ruler of the Ilabari Dynasty, known more popularly as the Slave Dynasty.
Ala-ud-din was an imperialist. With his accession begins, as Sir Wolseley Haig says, “the imperial period of the Sultanate”. During the time of Ala-ud-din, Ranthambhore was ruled by the chivalrous Rajput chief Hamir Deva. An expedition sent by the Sultan in 1299 met with only limited success. The Rajputs could not be subdued completely. So Ala-ud-din himself marched to Ranthambhore and captured it in 1301. Hamir Deva was put to death. Ranmal, the minster who betrayed his master Hamir, was also killed by Ala-ud-din’s order.
However, according to Hammir Mahakakavya, written by the Jaina poet Nayachandra Suri, Hamir Deva cut off his head with his own sword when he realized that he had been betrayed by his two generals Ratipala and Krishnapala, and his end was near.
Saturday, October 30, 2010
India Celebrates Vallabhbhai Patel’s Birthday
Friday, October 29, 2010
Ashoka as a Buddhist
Cosmas Indicopleustes
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Amir-i-Chahalgani, known variously as Turkan-i-Chahalgani and Chalisa (The Forty), was a group of 40 faithful slaves which came into existen...
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