Jean Baptiste Tavernier

Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605–1689) was a French traveller and a merchant in gems who made six voyages to India between 1630 and 1668 during the reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Being a dealer of diamonds made him well equipped to elaborately discuss about diamonds and diamond mines of India. 

His travel account, entitled Travel in India, first appeared in 1676. His another book Le Six Voyages de J. B. Tavernier- The Six Voyages of J. B. Tavernier was also published in 1676, and translated into English by Dr. C. V. Ball in 1889. 

The gem-studded Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taoos), commissioned by Shah Jahan and housed in the Diwan-i-Khas in the Red Fort of Delhi, was described by Tavernier as “the richest and most superb throne which has ever been seen in the world.” The Peacock Throne was taken to Persia by Nadir Shah who invaded India during the reign of Raushan Akhtar who ascended the Mughal throne under the title of Muhammad Shah in 1719. 

Tavernier died in Moscow in 1689, at the age of eighty-four. 

Bughra Khan

Bughra Khan was the second son of Balban of the Slave dynasty of rthe Delhi Sultante. During his father's reign, Bughra Khan was placed in charge of the territories of Samana and Sunam. He and his elder brother Muhammad Khan were successfully to keep the Mongols at bay but in A.D. 1285 Muhammad was killed during his fight against the Mongols. 

When Balban proceeded towards Bengal in 1281 to crush the rebellion of Tughral Tughan Khan (Governor of Bengal) he took Bughra Khan with him. The rebellion was suppressed and Tughril Khan was killed. Bughra Khan was appointed governor of the Bengal province.

When Balban died in 1287 pleasure loving Bughra Khan declined to be the Delhi Sultan and instead became an independent ruler of Bengal. So Balban was succeeded by Bughra Khan's son Kaiqubad on the throne of Delhi Sultanate. 

Written in verse in 1289, Qiran-us-sadin (the first historical masnavi of Amir Khusrau, the mediaeval Sufi mystic and poet) describes the much talked about meeting between Bughra Khan and Kaiqubad (Kaiqubad) when both of them tried to confront each other. 

After Bughra Khan, his son Ruknuddin Kaikaus  became the independent ruler of Bengal who ruled from 1291 to 1300 AD. 

Pietro della Valle

Pietro della Valle was an Italian traveler to India who reached Surat in 1623 and extensively travelled through the coastal regions of India. 

He has given a detailed description of Sati the traditional Hindu practice of self-immolation by a widow on her husband's funeral pyre prevalent in those times. 

B. R. Ambedkar

B. R. Ambedkar plaque. 10 King Henry Road, Chalk Farm, London

Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar who was a leader of the depressed classes throughout his life. He worked for the moral and material progress of the 'untouchables'.

B. R. Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in Mhow (now officially known as Dr Ambedkar Nagar) in Madhya Pradesh. He belonged to the 'untouchable' Mahar caste.

Ambedkar was a great scholar who studied economics at Columbia University and the London School of Economics. 

In 1924 Ambedkar founded the Depressed Classes Institute (Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha) in Bombay. Three years later in 1927 he established the Samaj Samta Sangh to propagate the gospel of social equality between caste Hindus and worked for the uplift of the 'untouchables'.

In December 1927, he led a satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the rights of the 'untouchables' to draw water from public wells and tanks.

In 1928 he organized temple entry movement named  Parvati temple satyagraha. He started Kalasam temple satyagraha during 1930 and 1935. 

In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labour Party for protecting the interest of the labour classes. That year he wrote seminal work Annihilation of Caste which strongly criticizes the caste system. 

In 1942 he founded Scheduled Castes Federation to campaign for the rights of the Dalit community.

Ambedkar was one of the chief authors of the Indian Constitution which came into effect on January 26, 1950. He resigned from government in 1951. In 1956 he converted to Buddhism, and he died later that year.

Futuh-us-Salatin of Isami

Born in 1311 AD, Abdul Malik Isami had written a political history called Futuh–us-Salatin which he dedicated to the founder of the Bahmani kingdom, Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (reigned 1347 – 1358). He had accompanied his grandfather to Devagiri when the populace of Delhi was ordered by Muhammad Bin Tugglaq to leave for Deogiri or Devagiri which the Tughlaq Sultan named Daulatabad. However, his old grandfather died on the way before reaching the destination. 

Composed in Persian in the form of an epic, Futuh –us-Sulatin ("Gifts of the Sultans") begins with the rise of the Ghaznavi dynasty and concludes with the reign of Sultan Muhamamd bin Tughlaq. Futuh-us-Salatin was completed in 1350 AD. 

According to Isami, Balban became the ruler of the Slave dynasty by murdering his predecessor and son-in-law Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. Regarding the rationale of shifting his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad) in the Deccan by Muhamamd bin Tughlaq,  this fourteen century historian says that the decision was taken as Daultabad was centrally located and consequently safe from the Mongol invasion, a recurrent feature during the period.

Ludovico di Varthema

Ludovico di Varthema and King of Khambat / Image Credit 

Ludovico di Varthema was an Italian traveller, adventurer and soldier who came to India via Alexandria, Cairo, Damascus, Mecca, Aden and Hormuz. He has left behind a vivid account of the cities and customs and manners of the people 

Apart from visiting the Adil Shahi capital of Bijapur in South India, Varthema visited the mighty Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar.

His description of the Vijayanagar city contains very interesting and valuable information.

His voluminous travel account, The Itinerary of Ludovico di Varthema, provides a detailed account of Goa, Calicut and other ports on the west coast of India.

Ludvico Di Varthema was knighted by the Portuguese for joining their services in India. According to him, Gujarat's Muzaffarid dynasty ruler Mahmud Shah (1459-1511), also known as Mahmud Begada, had a long beard that reached his girdle, and he tied his very long moustaches behind his head.

Karikala Chola – The Victor in the Battle Of Venni

Grand Anicut / Image Credit

Cholas were one of the three major ruling dynasties of the Tamil Country during the Sangam period  (between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D.). They ruled over an area known as Tondaimandalam or Cholamandalam. The most celebrated ruler of the Sangam Cholas was Karikalan who made a grand anicut at Kaveri and laid the foundation of the capital of Kaveripattinam, also known as Puhar. Kaveripattinam, now a non-descript fishing village silted up by the river mud, had an artificial harbour which was built by prisoners of war who were obtained by him following his successful raid on Sri Lanka. Before Kaveripattinam, Uraiyur was the capital of the Chola kingdom.  

Karikalan' father was the son of Ilanjetcenni who was a valiant and brave ruler.

Karikalan, which means man with a charred leg, was so named because his leg was caught in flames when the prison, in which he was incarcerated after being kidnapped by his enemies, was set on fire. He, however, managed to escape alive. 

He defeated a confederacy of the Chera, Pandya and eleven kings in the Battle of Venni (modern Kovilvenni, 15 miles (24 km) to the east of Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu). The Chera king received a wound in the back and expiated the disgrace by starving himself to death on the battlefield with his sword in hand. Karikalan was an able ruler and great general. The Battle of Venni which took place in 190 AD, is referred to in many poems by different Tamil authors. 

In another battle fought at Vahaipparandalai, ‘the field of vahai trees’, Karikalan defeated nine minor enemy chieftains. 

Equipped with a powerful army, he made Chola a naval power very early in the historical period as gauged from his victory on the Sri Lankan kingdom. He is said to have founded Kaveripattinam or Puhar, the chief port of the ancient Chola kingdom.

Poets were rewarded profusely by Karikala who is said to have given the author of Pattinappalai 1,600,000 gold pieces.

Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971

December 16 is celebrated to commemorate the defeat of the Pakistani troops in the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 and the emergence of an independent Bangladesh. On this day Pakistani army surrendered to Lt. General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the chief Commander of the Joint military command of India and Bangladesh. The day is celebrated as Victory Day or Bijoy Dibosh. Recently the iconic statue at the 1971 Shaheed Memorial Complex in Bangladesh, depicting the Pakistan Army's surrender, was vandalised amid the attacks on the Hindu population in the country. 

The emergence of Bangladesh as a sovereign country in 1971 is an important event in the world history. At the time of Indian independence in 1947 Bangladesh was a part of newly created nation of Pakistan. Since then, (it is still the case) Pakistan had been carrying their hate India campaign since its creation. It was nor ready (is still not ready) to understand that the future of India and Pakistan depends on peace and cooperation between these two countries.

Before its independence in 1971 Bangladesh was described as Eastern Pakistan. Due to the high handedness of the West Pakistan (present Pakistan) over the people of Eastern Pakistan, the situation came to such a pass that the people of the eastern Pakistan were in no mood to submit to the reckless dictates of the Western Pakistani authorities.

The first elections in Pakistan were held in 1970. The Awami League of eastern Pakistan, under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, got an absolute majority winning 160 out of 162 seats For East Pakistan in the National Assembly. However, the army Commander-in Chief, General Yahya Khan, who was ruling the country, refused to set up a representative government. As a result a civil disobedience movement led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was launched in eastern Pakistan. General Yahya Khan unleashed a reign of terror resulting in the killing of thousands of people. Many fled to India to escape the genocide. People of Eastern Pakistan took to guerilla warfare and liberation of Bangladesh became the battle cry .

On 28th March, 1971, the liberation army chief major Ziaudding Khan, announced the formation of Bangladesh Government. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was named the president. As the massacre of the people was carried by the western Pakistani armies, India could not afford to remain a silent spectator.

The make the matter worse, Pakistan declared war on India on 4th December. Pakistan was summarily defeated and India officially recognized Bangladesh as an independent country on 6th December. The combined forces of India and Bangladesh inflicted crushing defeat on the Pakistan armies. On 16th December Pakistani troops surrendered to Lt. General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the chief Commander of the Joint military command of India and Bangladesh.

First Anglo-Afghan War

 Original image by W.Taylo

The First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-42) was fought between the British East India Company (EIC) and, the Emirate of Afghanistan. 

The war caused the greatest misfortune that ever befell the British army and dealt a severe blow to their prestige in India.

With the fall of Napoleonic France in 1814, Russia had emerged as Britain’s potential rival by 1830s. India was the prized possession of the British Empire at that time. Russia has made its Asiatic ambitions clear. But to realize its ambition it would have to gain a diplomatic and military foothold in Afghanistan, an insignificant and impoverished tribal society in the early 19th century.

Instead of entering into an alliance with Afghanistan’s ruler, Dost Mohammad, Britain chose to back Shah Shuja, the deposed ruler of Afghanistan, who had been living in exile in India for three decades.

In 1837, Alexander Burnes, an envoy sent by  George Eden (Lord Auckland), the then Governor-General of India, reached Afghanistan. The Afghanistan’s ruler Dost Mohammad was willing to have the British as his ally but he sought British help in restoring the lost province of Peshawar to him from the Sikh leader Ranjit Singh.  Lord Auckland cited the doctrine of non-intervention in the affairs of the States for his inability to help Dost Muhammad. Consequently the negotiation, which was not conducted in right earnest, failed. Auckland was adamant on deposing Dost Mohammad who was a capable ruler. He chose to back Shah Shuja. Unable to secure British friendship, Dost Muhammad sought Russian help. Until treated insignificantly, Russian envoy Viktevitch was now received by him with favour.  

Now the stage was set for the inevitable war of the English with Afghanistan. Britain initially gained success. Under the supreme command of Sir John Keane, the British army occupied Qandahar in April 1839, stormed Ghazni on 23rd July and Kabul fell into their hands on 3rd August.  Shah Shuja was enthroned in Kabul by the British thirty years after he had lost the throne to Dost Mohammad. Dost Muhammad surrendered in 1840 and was sent to Calcutta as a prisoner.

Shah Shuja 

Louis and Charles Haghe (Public Domain)

However, Shah Shuja was not welcomed by the people of Afghanistan. They resented the stationing of the British troops in their own country.  Meanwhile the position of the British army became untenable with the rebellion of the populace. On the 2nd November, 1841, Captain Alexander Burnes was pulled out his house by a mob and murdered along with his brother Charles and lieutenant William Broadfoot.

The situation came to such a pass that British were left with no choice but to evacuate Afghanistan. However, on 6 January 1842, the retreat of the British troops and camp-followers, 16,500 men in all, began from Kabul. Of them only one, the British doctor Dr. Bbrydon, reached Jalalabad to tell the painful story of the destruction of the rest due to the attacks by the rebellious Afghans. The invincibility of the British Empire was shattered.

William Brydon riding into Jalalabad / Wikipedia Commons

In 1842 Lord Auckland was replaced as Governor-General of India by Lord Ellenborough who released Dost Mohammad from prison and reinstalled him on the throne in Kabul.

Devni Mori: A Historical Buddhist Site In Gujarat

Terracotta head of Buddha Devnimori

Excavations at Devni Mori, 2 km from Shamlaji in  the Aravalli district in northern Gujarat, have revealed a treasure trove of architecturally and sculpturally rich Buddhist remains that include a Buddhist monastery dating back to 3rd-4th century AD. The excavations at this archaeological importance also yielded various artifacts, such as terracotta statues, inscribed caskets, pottery, and  coins. 

Devni Mori has been submerged under the waters of the Meshwo reservoir since the 1970s.Today, a Buddhist flag is hoisted on a pole in the middle of the reservoir which came into being due to the construction of the Meshvo dam in the late 1960s. The flag marks the location where the stupa once stood.  

The excavation at the site was carried between 1960 and 1963 under the supervision of R N Mehta,  S. N. Chaudhary and B Subbharao.

The relic casket of Devnimor

The discovery of the stupa in Shamlaji is a testament to the influence of Buddhism in the area during the early period of the Christian era. The discovery of cascade containing relics of the Buddha from the stupa has further enhanced the sacredness of the stupa and the place of pilgrimage for the Buddhists. The inscription on the casket says that it contains sacred ashes of Buddha.

The Great Sanchi Stupa: Crowning Achievement of Early North Indian Sculpture

46km from Bhopal in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh is situated the world famous Buddhist site of Sanchi the remains of which are among the finest relics of early Buddhism dating from 3nd century BC. The Great stupa at Sanchi is hailed as the crowning achievement of early north Indian sculpture.

Today the Great Sanchi Stupa survives to be awe-inspiring spectacles for the pilgrims and tourists who throng to them. It is a massive hemisphere of about 120 feet in diameter.  Towards the end of the 1st century BC four glorious gateways (torana) were added at the four cardinal points. The stupa was enlarged to twice its original size in the 2nd century AD. Lesser stupas and monastic buildings surround the great stupa. 

The Sanchi gateways, carved with great skill, are more remarkable for their carved ornamentation than their architecture. Carved with a several figures and reliefs, each gateway consists of two square columns, above which are three architraves supported by massive elephants or dwarfs, the whole reaching some 34 feet above ground level. The architraves are covered with panels depicting sense from the life of the Buddha and Jataka stories. The finish is remarkably good and the carvings are among the fresh and vigorous of the Indian sculpture. 

The Ashokan Pillar

Erected by the Greatest Maurayan emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC, the Ashokan pillar, located in the vicinity of the Southern gateway of the Great Stupa, is a fine specimen of the Indian architecture and art in ancient times.   

Japanese Peace Pagoda, Darjeeling

Japanese Peace Pagoda, Darjeeling

Located on the slopes of the Jalapahar hills of Darjeeling,  the glistening, white-domed Peace Pagoda has been a landmark in Darjeeling since 1992. The edifice was built in by monks and nuns belonging to the Nipponzan Myohoji sect of Nichiren Buddhism. Nichidatsu Fujii (1885–1985), who founded the religious movement of Nipponzan Myohoji which means "Japanese Mountain Dharma Temple", laid the foundation stone of the pagoda in 1972.

Nipponzan Myohoji has constructed more than 70 peace pagodas in different parts of the world. They exist all around the world mostly in Asia but also in Europe and North America. Born in 1885, Nichidatsu Fujii founded Nipponzan Myohoji in 1924.

 The Darjeeling Japanese Peace Pagoda which is 28.5 metre high has the four incarnations of the Buddha including the Maitreya (the future) Buddha.

Efforts On To Bring Back Rajendra Chola’s Charter from the Netherlands

According to the Union Ministry of Culture and Tourism steps are afoot to bring back to India an 11th century charter of Chola ruler Rajendra Chola from Universiteit Leiden (University of Leiden) in the Netherlands.

The charter inscribed on 21 copper plates and held together by a massive bronze ring fastened with the seal of Rajendra Chola found its way to the Netherlands in the 18th century.

The copper plates speak of the genealogy of Raja Raja Chola and his contribution for building a Buddhist vihara in Nagapattinam (in Tamil Nadu).

Known for his religious tolerance, Rajaraja gave a helping hand to the Sailendra ruler of the Srivijaya Empire, Mara Vijayottunggavarman in building a Buddhist monastery in  Nagapattinam. The monastery was known Chudamani Vihara after Cudamanivarman, father of Mara Vijayottunggavarman. Srivijaya Empire was in what is now Indonesia and much of the Malay Archipelago. 

Atala Mosque, Jaunpur

Atala Mosque / Image Credit  

In May 2024 a petition was filed in a local court in Jaunpur in Uttar Pradesh that the 14th-century Atala Mosque be declared a “Atala Devi Mandir”. The mosque was built by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-1408). Petitioners say that according to historical records the mosque was built on the site of a temple of Atala Devi.  

Who was Ibrahim Shah Sharqi?

Ibrahim Shah Sharqi was a ruler of the Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur, north of Varanasi in the present Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. This dynasty was founded by Malik Sarwar, a eunuch belonging to Sultan Firuz Tughluq. Malik Sarwar’s astonishingly fast rise to power can be attributed to the chaos that ruled supreme after the death of Firuz in 1388. He was made wazir of the Delhi sultanate by Firuz’s younger son, Muhammad Shah (1390-93) who conferred on him the title of Sultanush-Sharq (Ruler of the Eastern Kingdom). 

Malik Sarwar’s rise continued and in 1394 was appointed governor of Jaunpur, where he successfully repulsed the uprisings by the Hindu chiefs of Bihar and Avadh. The chiefs of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran and Tirhut were forced to accept his suzerainty. When Timur, the terrible Mongol leader of Central Asia, left Delhi in 1399 after his invasion of India, Sarwar proclaimed himself the independent ruler of Jaunpur. At the time of his death in 1399, his kingdom extended to Kol (modern Aligarh), Rapri (Mainpuri district) and Sambhal. The eastern boundaries of Sharqi kingdom ran along Tirhut and Bihar. 

Malik Sarwar was succeeded to the throne by his adopted son Malik Mubarak Qaranfal (1399-1401). His reign was not eventful. After him, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (1401-40), the younger brother of Malik Sarwar, became the ruler of Jaunpur and was the greatest of the Sharqi rulers. He entered into an alliance with Kirti Singh of Tirhut. He sent his forces to help the ruler of Tirhut when the latter was invaded by a Muslim army. Another military expedition of Ibrahim Shah Sharqi was the invasion of Bengal to remove the Hindu ruler Ganesha from the throne. The small independent sultanate of Kalpi was also annexed to his kingdom. His military ambition did not stop. He invaded the Delhi sultanate which was being ruled by the Saiyid ruler Muhammad Shah (1435-46). The Saiyid ruler was forced to make an alliance which was sealed with a marriage between Ibrahim’s son and the Sultan’s daughter. 

Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Muhmud Shah Sharqi (1440-57), who was also an ambitious ruler. After Mahmud’s death, Muhmmad became the next Sharqi ruler, who was deposed after a few months because of his excessive cruelty. Muhmmad was succeeded by Husain Shah Sharqi, who concluded peace with Bahlul Lodi, the founder of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. He is credited to have strengthening his army, and compelled Gwalior and Orissa to submit to his rule. The Lodi rulers of Delhi Sultanate were keen to extend their rule and as result invaded the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur. In 1494, Husain Shah Sharqi suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Bahlul's successor, Sultan Sikandar Lodi, and was unable to withstand the forces of Delhi Sultanate and as a result the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur was annexed into the Delhi Sultanate. 

Husain Shah died in 1505. Husayn Shah Sharqi was a musical expert and creator of many ragas. He is credited with making improvements to Khayal, a genre of Hindustani classical music. 

Rohtas Fort of Sher Shah in Pakistan

Rohtas Fort Jhelum Punjab / Image Credit

Located near Dina city in the Jhelum district in Pakistan, Rohtas Fort (also called Qila Rohtas) was built in the 16th century on the instructions of Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri who did not live longer to see its completion which was overseen in the later years by his son Islam Shah, popularly known as Salim Shah. 

The construction of Rohtas Fort started in 1541 under the supervision of Sher Shah's official Todar Mal who later on joined the Mughal Empire under Akbar as its finance minister.

The construction of this gigantic fort was undertaken by Sher Shah to keep the refractory tribes of Gakkhars in check and guard the northern frontier boundary of Sur Empire. The fort was named by him after his famous strong fortress of the same name in Bihar. Qila Rohtas was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. 

The Gakkhars ruled in the mountainous region between the upper courses of the Jhelum and the Indus. 

Invasions and Plunder of Muhammad Ghori

Grave of Muhammad Ghori / Image Credit

After Mahmud of Ghazni, the next prominent invader on India was Muhammad Ghori (1202-1206), who took the title of Moizuddin Muhammad bin Sam after he became sultan. 

The actual name of Muhammad Ghori was Shahab-ud-din. The dynasty to which he belonged was Ghurid dynasty which supplanted the Ghaznavids in Afghanistan when he conquered the last Ghaznavid principality of Lahore in 1186 by defeating its ruler, Khusrau Malik, who was executed in 1191. His dynsty was so named as his family belonged to the territory of Ghor in Afghanistan.

He conquered several territories but remained a loyal subordinate  to his brother Ghiyas-ud-din, the Ghur Sultan,  until the latter's death in 1202 after which he became the Sultan and ruled until his murder in 1206.

Muizuddin  made his first Indian expedition in 1175 AD. these invasions were on the Muslim states of Multan and the fortress of Uch.

During the reign of Chalukya or Solanki ruler Bhima II (1178-1241), Muhammad Ghori made an unsuccessful attempt to subjugate Gujarat in 1178 AD and was comprehensively defeated in the Battle of Kayadara that took place in Sirohi district in Rajasthan.

In 1191 Muhammad Ghori fought against Prithviraj Chauhan (known as Rai Pithaura to the Muslim historians), who was the Rajput ruler of Delhi, Ajmer and its allies, and was the greatest ruler of the Chauhan dynasty, whose kings also came to be known as Chahamanas of Sakambhari.

Rajput forces inflicted a terrible defeat on Muhammad Ghori whose army was completely routed. Muhammad Ghori saved his life with difficulty and retired to Ghazni. This is famously known as the First battle of Tarain or Thaneswar in history.

The defeat however did not deter Muhammad Ghori from carrying another military campaign against Prithviraj in the next year, in 1192 AD. Prithviraj appealed the neighboring rulers to join the campaign against the Sultan. Almost everyone, except the powerful Gahadvala king Jaichand, supported him. According to Tod, Jaichand, father-in-law of Prithviraj, felt a sense of jealousy of latter’s exalted position among the Indian rulers.

In this battle, known as the Second Battle of Tarain, fortune favoured Muhammad Ghori. The Turkish army dealt a body blow to the Hindu ranks. Prithviraj was captured and killed.

When Muhammad of Ghur died in 1206 issueless, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was his slave (Mamluk), assumed the title of Sultan and became the ruler of Indian territories won by his master. The dynasty which Qutb-ud-din founded came to be known as Mamluk Dynasty (Slave Dynasty), the first in the line of five dynasties that comprised Delhi Sultanate that ruled from 1206 to 1526.

Another slave, Nasir-ud-din Qabacha became the ruler of Sindh and Multan. He was defeated by the Slave Sultan Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak) and Sindh and Multan became part of the Delhi Sultanate. He died in 1228 CE.

Tajuddin Yalduz, successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni, was beheaded at Badaun on the instruction of Iltutmish in 1216. 

Another important slave was Bakhtiyar Khilji who is infamous for destroying the universities of Nalanda, Odantapura or Odantapuri and Vikramshila. He attacked the Sena capital Nadia in Bengal. The last Hindu ruler of Bengal Lakshman Sena of the Sena dynasty surrendered meekly to Bakhtiyar Khalji and escaped for his life by flight in 1203.

Badaun: History In Medieval Times

Jama Masjid Shamsi, Badaun / Image Credit

Today, Budaun may be a non- descript town in the district of the same name in the western Uttar Pradesh, history weighs heavily on it. 

About 235 km from Delhi, Budaun came into prominence when it became a centre of power during the reign of Iltutmish of the Slave Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate. Iltutmish, who ruled from AD 1210 to 1236, served as the governor of Badaun under the Delhi Sultan Qutab ud-din Aibak before becoming the Sultan. It was at Badaun where Tajuddin Yalduz, successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni and a rival of Iltutmish, was beheaded on the instruction of the latter in 1216. The imposing Shamsi mosque in the town was commissioned by Iltutmish. 

Budaun was the birthplace of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325), one of the most famous Sufi saints of Chisti order. His Dargah in Delhi attracts a large number of visitors. 

Alauddin Alam Shah, the last ruler of Sayyid Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, found it better to retire in Badaun after abdicating the throne in favour of Buhlul Khan Lodi who founded a new dynasty which came to be known as the Lodi dynasty. 

The tombs of Alam Shah and his mother are an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) protected monument in Badaun.  

Samprati

Samprati

A grandson of 3rd Mauryan Emperor Ashoka,  Samprati (r. 224 – 215 BCE) was a Mauryan Emperor. He was the son of Kunala who was blind by birth. 

After Asoka's death in 232 BC, the territory of Mauryan empire was divided into the eastern and western parts. Sampriti and Dasaratha succeeded Asoka in the western and eastern parts respectively.

Samprati had embraced Jainism. He was converted to the religion by Jain monk Suhastin.

His contribution to Jainism is similar to that of Asoka to Buddhism. After a rule of nine years Samprati was followed by his son Salisuka who ruled for 13 years. 

Junagadh (Girnar) Inscription of Rudradaman

Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman / Image Credit

The Junagadh rock inscription of the Saka ruler Rudradaman is a eulogy inscribed on a rock located near Girnar hill near Junagadh in Gujarat. Composed in about 150 AD, the inscription,  which is the earliest inscription written in Sanskrit prose, refers to his reconstruction of a great dam or Sudarshan reservoir for irrigation which was excavated by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Chandragupta Maurya in the provinces of Anarta and Saurashtra (Gujarat). 

Written in the Brahmi script , this inscription is engraved on a rock which contains one of the fourteen Asokan Major Rock edicts and another inscription of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta. The inscription was first translated in 1837 by scholar and Orientalist James Prinsep, an official of the Calcutta Mint and secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

 

Military Conquests of Chandragupta Maurya

 

                              Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE / Wikimedia Commons

Ruling from 324 to 297 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the first and one of the greatest empires that appeared in Indian subcontinent. 

The scarcity of sources dealing with the military conquests of Chandragupta Maurya makes it difficult for us to ascertain whether he first overthrew Mahapadma Nanda, the unpopular last Nanda ruler, or drove out the Greeks from the North-West part of India.

From the inferences from the Jaina and Greek sources, it seems that liberation of Punjab was the first military activity by Chandragupta Maurya who felt emboldened by the confusion in the Greek empire that followed Macedonian ruler Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BC in Babylon. Greek writer Justin writes about the prevailing condition of the time, “India, after the death of Alexander, had shaken, as it were, the yoke of servitude from its neck and put his Governors to death. The architect of this liberation was Sandrocottus.”

Chandragupta Maurya is described as Sandrocottus in the Greek sources.

Chandragupta Maurya / Image Credit

After driving out the Greeks, Chandragupta turned his attention to the overthrow of the Nanda dynasty that was ruling Pataliputra at that time. Again, we are faced with the scarcity of accounts about this conquest. From the Jaina work Parisisthaparvan (12th-century Sanskrit work by Hemachandra, the court poet of the Chalukyas of Anhilwara) we come to know that Chankya, the able Brahmin advisor of Chandragupta, aided him in the conquest of Pataliputra by making him allying with a neighbouring king Parvataka. The combined armies of both the powers dealt the body-blow to the Nanda empire. According to the Buddhist text Milinda-panho which dates from sometime between 100 BC and 200 AD, Nanda army was led by its general Bhaddasala.

After the defeat of the Nanda power, Chandragupta declared himself the ruler of Magadha. He, however, again embarked on a policy of fresh military expeditions thereby bringing different parts of India under his suzerainty.

War with Seleucus I Nicator

A war with Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals, became inevitable for Chandragupta as the former after his master’s death became ruler of Babylon and tried to recover Alexander’s Indian provinces which had become part of the Mauryan empire.  However, Seleucus was defeated and entered into an alliance by ceding the Satrapies of Archosia (Kandahar) and the Paropanisade (Kabul), together with portions of Aria (Herat) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan). Under the terms of the alliance, the Mauryan emperor presented 500 elephants to the Greek general. According to Appian, the peace was concluded by a marriage alliance. However, the exact nature of this alliance is not known. Megasthenes was sent as ambassador to the Mauryan court to reside at Pataliputra.

Conquests of Western India and South

That western India was included in the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta can be ascertained from the Saka ruler Rudradaman I's Girnar Rock Inscription of about 150 AD which refers to his (Rudradaman I's ) reconstruction of a great dam and reservoir for irrigation which was excavated by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Chandragupta Maurya in the provinces of Anarta and Saurashtra (Gujarat).  

Chandragupta further extended his boundaries into the Konkan in Maharashtra where Asoka’s Rock Edict has been found at Sopara. Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, had excavated several edicts and inscriptions throughout the length and breadth of his kingdom. Since Bindusara, who was the son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya, is not known to have made any conquest and Asoka only conquered the Kalinga kingdom of Odisha, it can be said with certainty that Konkan was annexed to the Mauryan empire by Chandragupta.

Same can be said of Chandragupta’s expansion of his territories beyond the Vindhyas. The Rock Edicts II and XIII of Asoka state that the Mauryan empire shares its border with those of the southern kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras.

Mahalakshmi Temple at Doddagaddavalli

 Mahalakshmi Temple at Doddagaddavalli / Image Credit

A ASI protected monument, Mahalakshmi Temple at Doddagaddavalli in the Hassan district of Karnataka is a 12th-century Hindu shrine built in 1113 CE by a wealthy merchant Kalhana Ravuta and his wife Sahaja Devi during the reign of Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana  (r. 1108–1152 CE).

In 2020 Kali idol in the Mahalakshmi Temple was damaged.  

12th Century Hoysala Amrutesvara Temple

Amrutesvara Temple / Image Credit 

Located in Amruthapura, around 67 kilometres north of Chikmagalur, the Amrutesvara Temple was built in 1196 CE by the commander Amrutheshwara Dandanayaka, during the rule of Veera Ballala II (r. 1173–1220 CE), the Hoysala King. 

Located near the reservoir of the Bhadra River, this 12th century temple is a fine specimen of Hoysala architecture.    

Hucheshwara Temple, Halebid

Located close to Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebid in Karnataka, Hucheshwara temple is a Hoysala period shrine. As the temple is crumbling  the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is carrying out conservation and maintenance work. 

Moinuddin Chisti and His Disciples

The founder of the Chisti Sufi order in India, Muinud-din-Chisti was also known as Khwaja Ajmeri. Headquartered in Ajmer in Rajasthan, Chisti Sufi order attracted devotees from both Muslims and Hindus and continue to do so. Moinuddin Chishti came from Sistan with the Muslim invasion, eventually arriving in Ajmer where he died in 1236.

Thousands of Sufi devotees travel to the shrine of Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer for the annual Urs.

Disciples of Moinuddin Chisti 

Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki

The most important disciple of Moinuddin Chisti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki popularized the Chisti order in Delhi. He had come to Delhi some time after 1221. He died in 1235. His tomb is in Mehrauli in Delhi and it is said that Qutub Minar takes its name from this Sufi saint. 

Hamiduddin Nagauri

Another prominent disciple of Moinuddin Chisti, Hamiduddin Nagauri was instrumental in initiating Chisti order in Nagaur in Rajasthan.

Guru Nanak

This year marks the 555th birth anniversary of Guru Nanak [1469-1539], the founder of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion born in 15th-century. Guru Nanak preached harmony between Hinduism and Islam.  

The followers of Sikhisism must carry five articles all the time. They are known as the Five Ks: the Kesh (uncut hair), Kara (a steel bracelet), Kanga (a wooden comb), Kaccha (cotton underwear), and Kirpan (a curved dagger).

Guru Nanak is the first Sikh Guru. Nine gurus followed him and there is no living human successor, but the Sikh holy book Guru Granth Sahib is considered the 11th and eternal.

Guru Nanak was born in a Khatri family in 1469 during the rule of Bahlul Khan Lodi, founder of the Lodi dynasty. His birth took place  at the village of Talwandi ((now called Nankana Sahib), thirty-five miles south-west of Lahore and situated in the Nankana Sahib district in the Punjab province of Pakistan. 

Nanak's father was a Patwari (accountant). Nanak was given formal education and employed as an assistant to his brother-in-law, Jai Rama, who was in the service of Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Lahore, at Sultanpur Lodi in Punjab. 

At Sultanpur Lodi Nanak began his religious career preaching a faith based on equality and one God. He wandered over the country and even beyond as far as Makkah and Medina. He died in 1539 in Kartarpur in Pakistan. 

Nanak had married, lived the life of a householder and had two sons. He believed that married life was not a bar to spiritual progress. He preached the gospel of universal toleration and opposed caste-based distinctions and religious fanaticism. His message was one of unity of God and personal love for him. Both Hindu and Muslim were among his disciples. He nominated Angada, one of his disciples as his successor who gave unity and organisation to his followers. Gradually they became known as the Sikhs. 

The Journey of Fa-hsien to India

A native of sanxi (Shansi), Fa-hsien, also known as Faxian, was a Chinese monk who came to India on a pilgrimage tour during the reign of Chandra Gupta II ((reigned c 376-415). His motive for coming to India was to acquire authentic copies of the Buddhist scriptures and to visit the places associated with the Buddha. After his return to China he translated into Chinese the large number of Sanskrit Buddhist texts he had brought from India.

He had recorded his observations in a travelogue titled Fo-Kwo-Ki (Travels of Fa-Hien).

Being of religious nature, he gives information about temples and monasteries and the state of Buddhism in India at that time. He was so engrossed in the religious pursuits that he even doesn’t mention the name of Chandra Gupta II (376-415) of the Gupta empire though he spent some six years in India during the latter’s reign. The Buddhist canon Samyutta Nikata was translated into Chinese about 440 AD from a manuscript obtained by the pilgrim in Sri Lanka in 411. Fa-hsien was the earliest to refer to “pollution on approach” in regard to the untouchables.  

Fa-hsien traveled in India, particularly the Buddhist centres, extensively. He visited Kapilvastu (Lumbini), Bodh Gaya in Bihar, Benares (Varanasi), Kushinagar and Shravasti, all linked to events in Buddha's life. His observations are of great importance to an understanding of the period.

In 411 AD he travelled from Tamralipti (modern West Bengal) to Sri Lanka

Some of the important statements made by Fa-hsien about India are:

• The country is prosperous and the people are happy
• India is a peaceful state and one can travel from one place to the other throughout the empire without being harassed. There is no need for passport. The administration is mild. Capital punishment is not in vogue. Offenders are generally punished by fines. Crimes of serious nature, which are rare, are punished by amputation of one hand.  
• People are vegetarians. Only people of low castes and untouchables ate meat. Respectable citizens don’t consume liquor.
• Free hospitals are run by donations of pious subjects of the kingdom.
• Buddhism is in a state of flourish and Kashmir, Punjab ad Afghanistan are centres of Buddhism.
• Untouchables don’t form part of the society. The dwell outside the confines of villages in segregated localities. Before entering the villages they had to strike a piece of wood to warn others of their approach.

Alauddin Alam Shah – The Last Sayyid King

After Muhammad Shah's  death in A.D. 1445, his son, Alauddin Alam Shah (reigned 1445–51), succeeded him to the throne of the Sayyid Dynasty, the fourth in the line of five dynasties that comprised Delhi Sultanate that ruled from 1206 to 1526.

Alauddin Alam Shah was more inefficient than his father. Such was his fondness for gratification and aversion to work that he abdicated the throne in favour of Afghan Buhlul Khan Lodi (reigned 1451–89), the governor of Lahore and Sirhind, in 1451 and retired to Badaun (now in Uttar Pradesh), where he died in 1478. 

Alam Shah’s only claim to fame lies in the field of architecture. He constructed his father’s tomb which is located in the Lodhi Gardens in central Delhi.

He lies buried in a tomb in Badaun in Uttar Pradesh where his mother was also buried. The tombs of Alam Shah and his mother are an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) protected monument. 

A Short Note of Life of Vardhamana Mahavira

Lord Mahavira

Vardhamana, known to his followers as Mahavira, was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras (Ford-makers),  saviors and spiritual teachers of the dharma, in Jainism.  He is regarded as the founder of Jainism. 

A contemporary of The Buddha, Mahavira was born in village Kundandagrama near Vaishali in Bihar in a kshatriya (the warrior class) family about 599 BC. His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Jnatrikas clan and his mother Trishala was sister of Chetaka, the Licchavis king of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, who was married to Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka. Mahavira was married to Yashoda and had a daughter whose husband, Jamali, became the first disciple of Mahavira.

Though Mahavira was educated in all branches of knowledge he shied away from materialistic life. At the age of 30, when his parents were dead, he renounced his family, became an ascetic, and proceeded in search of truth. For over twelve years, he went from one place to another and led a life of torture by subjecting his body to all kinds of hardships but it was of no avail. During this period he met another ascetic, Gosala Maskariputra, who later founded the sect of Ajivikas. The Ajivika sect enjoyed its heydays during the Mauryan rule under Ashoka and his successor Dasharatha. It, however, survived until fourteenth century in south India.

In the thirteenth year of his asceticism on the tenth of Vaishakha, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama he found full enlightenment and Nirvana. From now onwards he was called Jaina or Jitendriya (one who has conquered his senses), Nirgranthas (“Free from Bonds”) and Mahavira (the brave) and his followers were named Jain. 

For the remaining thirty years Mahavira moved from one place to another in the Gangetic kingdoms and preached his religion. At the age of 72 he breathed his last at Pava, near the Magadhan capital Rajagrha in 527 BC. 

Women in Ancient India

Throughout most of ancient Indian history, the role of women was more or less confined to the home. Though there are instances where women wielded power and authority, this did not imply the common lot of the women in ancient India.

A woman was under the patriarchal authority of her parents, husband and sons. Even under Buddhism which boasted of liberal rules, a nun would be treated as subordinate to her male counterpart.

The status of women in ancient India kept on changing at different stages. During the Rig Vedic Period, women were treated equal to man.  During the Vedic period women participated in the public sacrifices alongside men. Some Vedic hymns are attributed to women. During this period, there were women rishis, and they were treated with respect and dignity.

However with the passage of time the status of women declined. 

Manu, one of the famous lawgivers of ancient India, declared that wife, like the slave, has no right to property. He dictated a woman would be dependent on her father in childhood, on her husband in youth and on her son in old age. However, some allowed a woman to own their special property (stridhana) in the form of jewellery and clothing.

In ancient Indian society a woman could find their role in religion, but could not serve the temples as priestess.

However in Vedic period the position of women was much more enhanced. Women seers are said to have composed some o the Vedic hymns. The famous discussion between Gargi and Yajnavalkya is well known. But by the beginning of the Christian era, women were declared ineligible for Vedic study. However, there are references to many references to literary works attributed to women poets and dramatists. In Tamil literature, the early poetess Avvaiyar composed works of high literary merit. Poruna-raatr-uppadai, which describes the victory of Karikala Chola in the battle at Venni near Thanjavur, has been attributed to a potter’s wife.

Sati in Ancient India 

The earliest  known Sati stone in India is an inscription engraved in A.D. 510 on a pillar found at Eran near Sagar in Madhya Pradesh. The Eran inscription mentions the wife of Goparaja, a vassal of Bhanugupta of the Gupta empire, burning herself on her husband's pyre.  The inscription mentions that his wife followed him on the pyre after his death in the battle against the Hunas.

The practice of sati was disapproved of by Bana, the court poet of Harsha (reigned from 606 to 647).

Buddhist Councils of Ancient India

After the Buddha's death, Buddhist councils were convened over the period of time to recite approved texts of scriptures and to settle doctrinal and disciplinary disputes. 

First Buddhist Council

Soon after the Buddha’s death in the fifth century BC the first Buddhist Council (sangiti) was held at Sattapanni cave near the Magadhan capital of Rajagriha (modern Rajgir, Bihar state of India). It was convened to compile the dhamma (religious doctrines) and the vinaya (monastic code). 

Rajagriha, which once served the capital of Bimbisara of Magadhan Empire, is sixty miles to the south-east of the modern Patna, the capital of Bihar. 

This council was held under the patronage of the king Ajatashatru with the monk Mahakasyapa, who presided over the assembly.

The council was participated in by five hundred monks. At the council, Upali, one of the Buddha’s chief disciples, recited the vinaya pitaka, or Rules of the Order, while another important disciple Ananada recited the sutta pitaka, the collection of the Buddha’s sermons on matters of doctrine and ethics.

Second Buddhist Council
A century later around 383 B.C. Vaishali in Bihar became the venue for the second Buddhist council which was convened to settle a serious dispute over the 'Ten Points’.  This is a reference to claims of some monks breaking ten rules. It is at Vaishali council where schism raised its head. Since either of the parties did not come to terms with each other, the council ended in a permanent schism of the Buddhist church into orthodox Sthaviravadins , or “Believers in the Teaching of the Elders” and Mahasanghikas or “Members of the Great Community”.

Third Buddhist Council
The third council was held at Patliputra (modern Patna, capital of Bihar ) under the patronage of Great Mauryan Emperor Asoka, 236 years after the death of Buddha. Presided over by the scholar monk Moggaliputra Tissa, the council was participated in by one thousand monks. The third Buddhist Council resulted in the expulsion of several heretics.

This council achieved a number of other important things. Moggaliputta Tissa, in order to keep heresies at bay and ensure the Dhamma was kept pure, composed a book called the Kathavatthu in which he disproved the wrong opinions and theories of a number of sects.

Fourth Buddhist Council
The fourth Council was held during the reign of Kanishka of Kushan Dynasty in Kashmir under the leadership of elder Vasumitra and the great scholar Asvaghosha. Here at this council Savastivadin doctrines were codified in a summary, the Mahavibhasa ("Great Exegesis"). The convening of this council led to the division into two broad sects, namely the Mahayana (great Vehicle ) and the Hinayana (lesser Vehicle). According to Buddhist tradition, another fourth Buddhist council was also held at Tambapanni at Alu Vihara in Sri Lanka in 29 B.C. under the patronage of King Vattagamani Abhaya (29–17 bc).  

History of the Western Chalukya Empire

Brahma Jinalaya Temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka / Image Credit

Karka II, the last ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga (modern Kalaburagi) district in Karnataka), was overthrown in AD 974 by Tailapa or Taila II, who started a new line of Chalukyas known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani  (modern day Basavakalyan in the present Bidar district of Karnataka). 

Chalukyas of Kalyani, also known as Western Chalukya dynasty, produced some of the greatest rulers though the genealogy of the rulers of the dynasty is still in the realm of debate.

The kingdom established by Tailapa is known as Later Chalukya or the Chalukyas of Kalyani (The earlier Chalukyas being the Chalukyas of Badami). There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami or Vatapi (also known as early western Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Vengi (also known as eastern Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

Western-Chalukya-Empire / Image Source

Tailapa’s reign lasted for twenty-three years from AD 974 to 997. His rule is marked by extensive conquests. He came into conflict with the Gangas. After defeating Panchaladeva of Ganga dynasty, he captured North Mysore. He fought a prolonged battle with the Paramaras of Malwa and eventually after inflicting a crushing defeat on the Parmara Munja, took him prisoner and the later died in captivity. His reign also saw the beginning of a long drawn phase of wars against the Cholas of Thanjavur, attacking Uttama Chola. The Chalukya-Chola struggle became a regular feature during the rule of his successors. 

Tailapa is known for patronising Kannada poet Ranna, one of three gems of Kannada literature. The 10th century work, Gadhayuddham (The Duel of Maces) is Ranna's magnum opus. 

Tailapa was succeeded by his son and successor Satyasraya, also known as Sollina or Solliga, who continued the aggressive policies of his father. Satyasraya, had to face two Chola invasions led by the mighty Rajendra Chola. The Chola armies plundered the entire Chalukyan territory, Captured Banavasi, the seat of power of the Kadambas and large parts of Raichur Doab, and sacked the Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta. Another Chola army moved towards Vengi and forced Satyasraya to withdraw his forces from Vengi.

After Satyasraya’s death in 1008, his nephew Vikramaditya V ascended the throne. During his reign, nothing of consequence took place. He was succeeded by his brother Jayasimha II in AD 1015. Jayasimha II (1015-1042) has to face the adversaries on several fronts. He had to face wrath of the Parmara Bhoja of Malwa, wanting to avenge the fate of Munja. The Chalukyan kingdom was invaded by Bhoja (1018-1055) who captured Lata (Gujarat) and parts of Konkan. But it was the Rajendra Chola who proved to be his most formidable foe. After many successive defeats of the Chalukyan forces, the Tungabhadra River became the tacit boundary between the two empires. Akkadevi, sister of Jayasimha II, is famed in the history for fighting battles and superintending sieges.

Jayasimha II was succeeded by Someshvara I Ahavamalla (c1042-1068). He shifted his capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani, embellishing the new capital with many beautiful buildings. During the last years of his reign when his power began to decline, he drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River at Kuruvatti.

The continuous wars with the Cholas dent a blow to the Chalukyas resources and resulted in the weakening of the empire. The last notable Chalukya ruler was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126) who is famous for introducing the Chalukya –Vikram era in place of Shaka era. In 1085, his armies advanced towards Kanchi and captured some Chola territories in Andhra. He fought many battles against the Hoyasalas of Dwarasamundra, the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Kadambas of Goa, who were the feudatories of the Chalukyas. But in spite of having defeated them, he could not finally suppress their power and within three decades of his death, most of the leading Chalukyan feudatories asserted their independence.

Apart from his chivalrous exploits, Vikramaditya VI was also famous for patronizing men of letters. Kashmiri poet Bilhana, the author of the Vikaramankadevacharya, and Vijnaneshvara, the commentator of the Mitakshara commentary on the Smritis, adorned his court. He was the hero of Vikramankadevacharita and is said to have obtained brides by svayamvaras, or “self choice’.

After the death of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyas had to face repeated rebellions of their vassals, who soon asserted their independence. By the middle of the twelfth century, the Chalukyan kingdom of Kalyani became almost a shadow of itself and the kingdom was divided into the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (present day Halebidu in Hassan District of Karnataka) and the Yadavas of Devagiri.

Western Chalukya Temples

Kasivisvesvara Temple, Jain temple of Brahma Jinalaya and Nannesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district in Karnataka are the famed Western Chalukya Temples.