Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi

Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi is the only historical account on the reign of Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri. It was written by Abbas Khan Sarwani and commissioned by third Mughal ruler Akbar whose father Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri at the battles of Chausa and Kanauj in 1540. 

Sarnath: Where the Buddha delivered his first sermon

                                     Dhamekh Stupa, Sarnath|Wikimedia Commons

Located 10km north of Varanasi, the famous site of Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh is a Buddhist site not to be missed. It was at Sarnath where in Deer Park the Buddha delivered his first sermon after the attainment of enlightenment under the tree of wisdom at Bodh Gaya. The event of his deliverance of first sermon at Sarnath is known in the Buddhist tradition as the turning of the wheel of Sacred Law or “Dharmachakra Privartan”. 

Painting of the Buddha's first discourse, turning the Dharmacakra; Circa 700-1100 CE; Sanskrit Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript written in the Ranjana script; Nalanda, Bihar, India. Image source: Wikimedia Commons

The Buddha journeyed to Sarnath to preach his first sermon to those five ascetics who were his disciples but had left him in disgust when they found that the Buddha became convinced that rigorous self mortification is not the way to obtain final bliss. These five ascetics were so impressed by Buddha’s sermon that they became his disciples once again and stopped practising austerities. 

In contrast to the hustle and bustle of hectic Varanasi, Sarnath, previously known as Isipatana, is a serene place where one can wander around the grassy gardens and explore the Buddhist ruins.

Places to see in Sarnath 

Dhamekh Stupa 

The most important highlight of a trip to Sarnath is the Dharmekh Stupa, a major tourist attraction in India. Dating back to the 3rd century AD, the stupa, which is now in ruins, is impressive at 31.3 meter high, and 28.3 in diameter. It marks the spot where the Buddha is said to have delivered his first sermon.

Ashoka Pillar 

Erected by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC, the Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is an important attraction in Sarnath. The splendid lion capital which was once placed on top of the pillar can be seen in the Sarnath Archaeological Museum which also possesses some of the most beautiful images of the Buddha. The capital has been adopted by India as its national emblem. 

. 

Dinabandhu Mitra's Nil Darpan

Dinabandhu Mitra is known for his novel Nil Darpan (The Mirror of Indigo) which describes the oppression of the indigo cultivators at the hands of indigo planters, leading to the Indigo Revolt in Bengal in 1859. 

Indigo Revolt has been described as "the first Revolution in Bengal after the advent of the English."  

Since Dinabandhu Mitra was in government service, he published Nil Darpan in the name of anonymous.

Rajnarayan Basu, Grandfather of Indian Nationalism

Affectionately called “the Grandfather of Indian Nationalism” Rajnarayan Basu was founder of the Society for Promotion of National feeling (Jatiyo Gaurab Sampadani Sabha),

Romesh Chunder Dutt, historian and political leader

Romesh Chunder Dutt (1848-1909) was a famous historian, economic thinker and political leader. In 1899, he presided over the annual conference of the Indian National Congress held in Lucknow.  

According to revolutionary and mystic Aurobindo Ghose, Romesh Chunder Dutt “prepared the public mind for the boycott movement” and “not only wrote history but created it.”   

His famous work is the Economic History of India (1902). Apart from translating the Ramayana and Mahabharata in English, he also translated the Rig Veda in Bengali. 

Great Stupa of Amaravati

                                                 Amaravati Stupa|Wikimedia Commons

Located in the lower Krishna valley in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, Amravati is famous for its ruined stupa which in its final form was completed c A.D. 200. The stupa was once larger than that of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh and was adorned with carved relief panels depicting scenes of the Buddha’s life. These relief medallions are among the wonderful works of India art. The Stupa was surrounded with free standing Buddha figures.

Barabar Caves: Oldest Surviving Rock-cut Caves in India

Barabar Caves/Wikipedia Commons

Apart from the stupas, caves are the main architectural remains of the period preceding the Gupta dynasty which was founded in the first half of the fourth century AD. The earliest and most prominent among these artificial caves, excavated for religious purposes, are the Buddhist caves of Barabar, in the Jehanabad district of Bihar. 

Carved out from solid rocks, Barabar caves (located 25 km north of Gaya) were excavated by the greatest Mauryan emperor Ashoka for use by Buddhist monks in the 3rd century BC. However, two of the Barabar caves were also dedicated by him to the monks of Ajivika sect who were among the chief rivals of Buddhists. This goes on to show that the Ajivika sect enjoyed patronage of Ashoka and his successor Dasharatha who is also credited with the dedication of two caves in the Nagarjuni Hills, near Barabar, to the Ajivikas. 

The inner walls of the Barabar caves are finely polished. The workmen of these caves belonged to the school that was responsible for the polish of Ashokan pillars and inscriptions which he erected in the 3rd century BC in different parts of the country. 

Jain Councils

                                Sthulabhadra Jain temple in Patna/ Ghosh Ujjwal via Wikimedia Common

On the death of great Jain saint Bhadrabahu, the First Jain Council was called by the Jaina monk Sthulabhadra at Patliputra. At this great council, the twelve Angas or sections, the sacred cantons of the Svetambaras, were compiled which replaced the fourteen former Jaina texts (Purvas). 

The Second Jaina Council was held in Valabhi in Saurashtra (Gujarat) in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devardhi Kshamasraman. At the council, the Oral Jain traditions of the Svetambaras were finally reduced to writing in the form of twelve Upangas or minor sections, and various lesser sections. 

Dholavira: Fifth largest Harappan site

Dholavira|Rahul Zota via Wikimedia Common

The archeological site of Dholavira in the Bhachau taluka of Kutch district in Gujarat is one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India. Rakhigarhi in Haryana is the other one. 

Locally known as Kotada timba, meaning a large fort, Dholavira was first explored by ASI’s J P Joshi. However, it was excavated extensively by RS Bisht in the 1990s. 

This Indus Valley Civilization site had three divisions – christened as ‘citadel’ or ‘acropolis’, “middle town” and “lower town” with elaborate gate complex on its fortifications.  

Like other Harappan sites, the script written by the inhabitants of Dholavira remains indecipherable. The characters of the script found at Dholavira are huge.

Mughal Painting

Chief components of Mughal paintings were Indian, Persian and Chinese. The imported style introduced by the Mughals mingled with the contemporary Indian schools of painting flourishing in different parts of the country. Gujarat, Rajputana and Kashmir were important centres of Indian painting in the early Mughal period. Court life and natural life inspire most of the subjects of Mughal paintings. Portraits of the Mughal emperors are also one of the themes of the Mughal paintings. 

Persian painter Abdus Samad was appointed tutor to the Prince Akbar by Humayun. Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali were invited to the Mughal court to prepare a lavishly illustrated manuscript of the Persian translation of the Hamzanama, the celebrated Arab epic about a legend Hamza. Hamzanama had 1004 illustrated pages in its twelve volumes.

Development of fresco painting (Frescoes on the walls of Fatehpur Sikri) was an important contribution to the field painting during Akbar’s period which also witnessed the introduction of European painting at the Mughal court.  

Daswanth, Farrukh Beg and Basawan were the famous painters in Akbar’s court. Impressed by his talent, Akbar sent Daswanth to Abdus Samad. Daswanth’s illustration of the Persian translation of the Mahabharata is now in Jaipur. Baswan was another talented painter. Abul Fazal, the court historian, refers by name to thirteen Hindu and five Muslim painters in the court of Akbar. 

Portrait painting made special progress during the reign of Jahangir who himself was an excellent connoisseur of painting. Ustad Mansur at his court was famous for his paintings of animal and human portraits. 

Aga Reza and his son Abul Hasan from Herat in Afghanistan were employed by Jahangir. Abdul Hasan was bestowed the title of Nadir-uz-Saman ("Wonder of the Age") by Jahangir who took pride in his ability to recognise the artist by their paintings.  

Shah Jahan was the last great royal patron of Mughal school of painting. 

Key Points

• Abdus Samad was given the title of Shirin Qalam. 
• Abul Hasan was given the title of Nadir-uz-Zaman ("Wonder of the Age") by Jahangir.  
• Ustad Mansur was given the title of Nadir-ul-Asr ("Unequalled of the age").

Salabat Khan’s Tomb at Ahmadnagar

                                     Tomb of Salabat Khan/ Wikipedia Commons

The octagonal tomb of Salabat Khan is at the centre of an octagonal terrace on a picturesque hill site in Ahmadnagar in Maharashtra. Salabat Khan was a minister under Sultan Murtaza I (1565-88) of Ahmadnagar Sultanate, known more famously as the Nizam Shahi dynasty, one of the five independent states that arose on the debris of the Bahmani Sultanate.  

Salabat Khan’s tomb is also known as Chand Bibi’s palace. Chand Bibi was the daughter of Husain Nizam Shah of Nizam Shahi dynasty and widow of Ali Adil Shah belonging to the Bijapur’s Adil Shahi dynasty. 

The Miracles of Buddha in Shravasti

                   Anandabodhi tree in Jetavana monastery/Wikimedia Commons

It was at Shravasti or Sravasti where the Buddha is said to have performed feats of levitation and other miracles due to challenge from his rivals, though he disapproved their performance by his monks and disciples.

A major centre of Buddhist pilgrimage, Sravasti in Uttar Pradesh is known for being the place where the Buddha spent the major portion of his missionary life. In fact, he passed as many as 25 rainy seasons of life here. Needless to say, a large number of his sermons were delivered in Sravasti which served as the ancient capital of Kosala during the reign of king Presenajit. It ranked among the six main cities during the time of Buddha’s death. This can be ascertained form Buddha’s disciple Ananda’s disappointment t that his teacher should have chosen to die in Sravasti instead of a small place like Kusinagar. 

Sravasti finds mention in the travelogues of Fa-hsien who came to India in the fifth century AD to obtain authentic copies of the Buddhist texts. Though he found monasteries full of spiritual activities the city was losing its prosperity.  

Sravasti continue to be a Buddhist centre till the 9th century. However the place began to lose its importance and after the 12th century AD, nothing much is known about Sravasti. Excavations at this site have unearthed the remains of five brick-built monasteries together with a shrine and a stupa.

Places of attraction

Jetavana Vihara

Donated to Buddha by his devotee Sudatta or Anathapindika, a rich banker of Sravasti, this magnificent monastery consisted of a very large complex of buildings including dwelling rooms, bathrooms, halls of meditation and ponds. Anandabodhi tree and the Gandhakuti (Buddha's hut) are located within the site of Jetavana Vihara. 

Pubbarama Vihara

The second most spiritually important monastery in Sravasti was Pubbarama on the premises of which was located magnificent two-storeyed building known as Migaramatupasada. The Buddha had spent six rainy seasons in Pubbarama monastery.

Rajakarama Vihara

This was built by king Presenajit who was a contemporary and devotee of the Buddha. Here Buddha is said to have preached the Nandakovida Sutta and several sermons contained in the Saihyutta Nikaya.

Other important places of attractions in Sravasti are Stupa of Angulimala (the notorious bandit who was converted by the Buddha from his evil ways), Place (Stupa) of the Twin Miracle.

Alai Darwaza (Gateway of Alauddin)

Alai Darwaza (Gateway of Alauddin) was built in 1311 by Alauddin Khalji, the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty, the second in the line of five dynasties that comprised the Delhi Sultanate. It is the southern gateway to the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi. 

The material used in the construction of Alai Darwaza  is red sandstone and white marble, with inlays of black marble and blue schist.

Ghosrawan, Buddhist site in Bihar

10 km south east of Bihar Sharif (headquarters of the Nalanda district) in Bihar, Ghosrawan is a Buddhist site which was once a centre of Buddhism in ancient India. Several Buddhist structures including a life size statue of Khasarpana Avalokitesvara in a standing position have been discovered here. 

Kapotaka Vihara, a large monastery referred to and visited by Hiuen Tsang in the seventh century, is believed to have been located at Ghosrawan. The masterpiece of the attractions at Ghosrawan is a 10 feet Buddha statue carved out of gleaming black stone. This huge image is placed beside a tank.

Three km north of Ghosrawan is Tetrawan which is home to a large number of Buddhist relics including carved statues of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

 

Turkan-i-Chahalgani, the Group of Forty

Amir-i-Chahalgani, known variously as Turkan-i-Chahalgani and Chalisa (The Forty), was a group of 40 faithful slaves which came into existence with the task of protecting Shamsuddin Iltutmish, the third Slave Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. The idea to form the group was taken by him when he came to realize that Turkish nobles cannot be trusted and could be a threat to his rule.

With the passage of time the group went on to become very influential and powerful. Though Iltutmish succeeded in keeping the group under control, after his rule they became notorious and intrigued against nearly all his successors. 

The Forty acquired domination on the affairs of the state so much so that no ruler could defy them. Without their support it was utterly out of questions for the rulers to win the battle for succession. The members of this Turkish nobility used to appropriate all the offices of the state to themselves. Some of the rulers of the Slave dynasty after Iltutmish were murdered by these slaves.

Intrigues, counter intrigues and greed for wealth reigned supreme among the members of the Forty. 

Balban, who had been an active member of the Forty before his accession to the throne, was fully aware of its real strengths as well as its sense of loyalty to the family of Iltutmish. He carefully made a plan to guard against the intrigues and conspiracies of the members of the Forty. He started to eliminate them one by one, giving a death blow to the Turkish nobility to which he once himself belonged.

 

Sugh: Buddhist Archeological site in Haryana

About 10 km north-east off district headquarters of Yamunanagar in Haryana, the sleepy village of Sugh was once a great centre of Buddhist learning in ancient India when the place attracted scholars who participated in philosophical debates.

According to the famous Chinese monk and scholar Hiuen Tsang who is believed to have visited the place in the 7th century AD, Sugh was a home to ten stupas and five monasteries.  Some of these were built by Mauryan emperor Ashoka. These stupas contained the ashes of the Buddha and his distinguished disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana. 3 kilometres north-west of Sugh is located the Chaneti  stupa .  

The archeological site of Sugh, which was known as Shrughna in ancient times, was first identified by Alexander Cunningham. Shrughna was also a famous centre of trade in ancient India. 

The nearest railway station to Sugh is Jagadhri Railway Station at Yamunanagar. Lying on the popular Amritsar- Kolkata railway route Jagadhri Railway Station is well connected via rail with major cities and places in India. You can board Golden Temple Mail from Hazrat Nizamuddin Railway Station in Delhi to reach Jagadhri Railway Station. 

 

Shah Alam II

Shah Alam II was the son of Alamgir II, a puppet Mughal emperor. Alamgir II was killed in 1759 by his prime minister Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung III, popularly known as Imad-ul-Mulk.

The actual name of Shah Alam II was Ali Gauhar.  At the time of his father’s murder he was wandering as a fugitive prince in Bihar where he proclaimed himself emperor on December 22 while another prince, Muhiul-millat, the grandson of Aurangzeb’s youngest son Muhammad Kam Bakhsh, was raised to the throne in Delhi under the title of Shah Jahan III.

These conditions forced Shah Alam II to remain in exile from Delhi for twelve years until 1772 when he was reinstated at Delhi by the Marathas, a powerful power at that time. Meanwhile the English were fast strengthening their position after their victory in the battle of Plassey in 1757. After his defeat in the Battle of Buxar in 1764,  Shah Alam II was forced to grant the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the English East India Company in 1765. 

In 1988 Shah Alam II was blinded by Rohilla chief, Ghulam Qadir.   

Shah Alam II died in 1806. He lies buried in a tomb situated at Mehrauli in Delhi 

What Were the Most Important Battles in Ancient Indian History?

The following battles are the most important in the history of India 

The Mahabharata War, 3102 BC

The Mahabharata war was a great civil war fought among cousins and brothers for the succession of the throne of the Kuru Kingdom, the capital of which was in the region of the modern Delhi, then known as Kurukshetra.

Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum), 326 BC

Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum) was fought in 326 BC between Alexander and King Porus of Punjab.  Porus was defeated by Alexander who restored him to his kingdom as a vassal.  

Seleucid–Mauryan War, 305 BC

The Seleucid–Mauryan War was fought in about 305 between Alexander’s general Seleucus I Nicator and Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan empire. The battle, that took place in western India, ended in the defeat of Seleucus I Nicator who had to yield parts of what is now Afghanistan to Chandragupta Maurya. . Seleucus I Nicator, in exchange, received 500 elephants. 

Kaling War, 261 BC 

The Kaling War was fought between Ashoka of Mauryan  Empire and Kalinga  Kingdom in 261 B.C. After his victory in the Battle of Kalinga, Ashoka substituted conquest by Righteousness (dharma) in place of the policy of territorial aggression. The battle marks a turning point not only in Indian history but in world history too.

Battle of Venni, 180 AD 

The Battle of Venni was fought between the Chola power under Karikala and the combined forces of the Cheras and the Pandyas. The battle took place at Venni (modern Kovilvenni near Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu) during the Sangam age. The Chola power emerged victorious. 

Battle of Pullalur, 618–19 AD 

The Battle of Pullalur was fought between Chalukya king Pulakesin II and the Pallava king Mahendravarman I resulting in the victory of the former. The battle took place at Pullalur (now in the Kanchipuram district in Tamil Nadu) in about 618–19. The Pallava capital Kanchipuram was destroyed. 

Battle of Manimangala, 640 AD

Battle of Manimangala was fought in 640 AD between Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I and Chalukya king Pulakesin II who suffered defeat. 

Battle of Vatapi, 642 AD

The Battle of Vatapi took place in 642 AD between Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I and Chalukya king Pulakesin II near the Chalukya capital of Vatapi.  After the battle which resulted in the defeat and death of Pulakeshin II,  Narasimhavarman I took the title of Vatapikonda (Conqueror of Vatapi).