Indra: The Most Powerful Vedic God

Going by the number of hymns addressed to the deities in the Vedic period, the atmospheric god Indra is the clear winner. Apart from weather god, he was also war god. Sharing several characteristics of the Greek Zeus and the Germanic Thor, Indra has been variously described as a winner (jitendra), efficient car warrior (rathestha), Shatakratu (possessing a hundred powers) and meghavahana (rider of cloud), and  a Somadrinker (Somapa). 

Indra’s father is Dyaus (heaven). Indrani or Sachi (energy) is his wife. He destroyed the forts (pura) of his enemies, and was accordingly known as Purandara (the breaker of forts). He killed the evil cloud demon Vritra and therefore, is called Varitrahan (slayer of Vrita). Indra is called by the name Śakra in Buddhist scriptures.

Indra is associated with thunderstorms. Like Zeus and Thor, his hand bore the thunderbolt (Vajra), which was used by him to destroy his enemies.

Another interesting facet to Indra’s personality is his fondness for feasting and drinking. This has earned him the epithet of Somapa (a Soma drinker).

By the end of the Middle ages, Indra’s importance began to wane and there were few temples dedicated to him. 

Mahmud Gawan, Scholar, Statesman and Administrator

Madarasa of Mahmud-Gawan

Mahmud Gawan, who had served the Bahmani kingdom of South India in different posts in the reigns of three successive rulers, was an erudite scholar, statesman and a great administrator. A trader by profession, he was born in Iran and came to Bidar in 1453 A.D.

Mahmud Gawan was synonymous with honesty, loyalty and simplicity. He was given the title of Mallik-Ul-Tujjar. A skillful military leader, he brought the Bahmani kingdom to its greatest extent.

A strong proponent of literacy among the people, Mahmud Gawan is credited with the establishment of many schools and colleges. Chief among them is the college which he got built in Bidar. This three storied building, known as Mahmud Gawan's Madarasa, with its massive walls and grand minarets is one of the chief attractions in Bidar (in Karnataka) today.

Mahmud Gawan fell prey to the intrigues of the Decanni nobles who were jealous of his rise and instigated the Bahmani Sultan Muhammad Shah III who, in a drunken state, ordered his execution on 5^th April, 1481.

Nizam Shahi Dynasty of Ahmadnagar

Ahmadnagar Sultanate, known more famously as the Nizam Shahi Dynasty, was one of the five independent states that arose on the debris of the Bahmani Sultanate. The Sultanate derives its name from Ahmadnagar, the seat of the power, which is 120 km northeast of Pune and located in the state of Maharashtra.

Nizam Shahi dynasty was founded by Malik Ahmad, son of Hasan Nizamul Mulk, (wazir) Prime Minister of the Bahmani kingdom after Mahmud Gawan’s execution in 1481. Mahmud Gawan was a renowned Islamic scholar who rose in ranks to become the wazir of the Bahmani kingdom. Malik Ahmad, who was appointed to the governorship of Junnar, asserted his independence in 1490. He transferred his seat of government from Junnar to Ahmadnagar which he founded in 1494. During his rule Daulatabad became part of the Ahmadnagar kingdom in 1499.

After Ahmad’s death in 1510, he was succeeded by his son Burhan, a lad of seven years at that time. Burhan, the first of the Nizam Shahis to assume the title of Nizam Shah, ruled for forty-three years. His interests were ably served by his able minister Mukammal Khan Dakhimi. Ahmadnagar, during his reign, changed sides and joined coalition with the kingdoms of   Bidar, Bijapur. Golcunda and Berar and Vijayanagar against one another. He joined a coalition of Vijayanagar ruler against Bijapur in 1550. After his death in 1553 Burhan was succeeded by his son Husain Shah Nizami who joined the Deccan Muslim Sultanates against the Vijayanagar in the famous Battle of Talikota in 1665. The great city of Hampi, the seat of the Vijayanagar empire, was sacked after the defeat of the Vijayanagar Raya. 

Husain died in 1665 and was succeeded by his son Murtada Nizam Shah I (1565-88). During his rule, the Imad Shahi dynasty came to an end with the annexation of Berar to the Ahmadnagar kingdom in 1574. However, after this, Murtada lost his mental balance and began to consider his own son Miran to be his adversary. On the other hand, Miran conspired against his father and suffocated him to death while he was in his bed. This happened in 1588. Miran did not reign long and was succeeded by Ismail (1589-91) who ruled for two years. His reign was marked by the struggle for power between the Shias and the Mahdawi sect. Ismail’s father , Burhan Nizam Shah II, defeated his son’s army and ascended the Ahmadnagar throne. Burhan suffered a series of defeats at the hands of Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Adil Shahi dynasty. He was also unsuccessful in recovering Chaul from the Portuguese. It was during Burhan’s reign that Burhan  I – Ma’athir was compiled.

Burhan Nizam Shah II was succeeded by his son Ibrahim whose rule lasted for only four months. Confusion reigned supreme in the Ahmadnagar kingdom as there were four claimants to the throne. While one of them was supported by Chand Bibi, daughter of Husain Nizam Shah and widow of Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur, Miyan Manjhu threw his weight with another. Miyan Manjhu asked for help from Mughal emperor Akbar’s son prince Murad who responded by besieging the Ahmadnagar fort. Chand Bibi fought gallantly but in the end in 1596 she was forced to enter into an agreement with the Mughals, ceding Berar to the Mughal empire. Peace, however, did not last long and the Mughals again laid siege to the capital. It was during the second attack that Chand Bibi was either murdered or took poison and lost her life (1600).

However, the sagging fortunes of the Ahmadnagar empire were revived by Ahmandnagar’s Abyssinian minster Malik Ambar. He was a thrice manumitted Abyssinian (Ethiopian) slave who is known in the medieval period as a great statesman and able administrator. Deciding not to surrender to the Mughal might, he raided the Mughal territory with great effect by means of guerrilla tactics. He installed Murtaza II as ruler of Nizam Shahi dynasty with his capital at Parenda. Malik Ambar’s gallant resistance to the Mughal forces ended when he was defeated by Mughal Prince Khurram first in 1617 and again in 1621. Applauding his role in this victory, Prince Khurram was given by his father Jahangir, the fourth Mughal Emperor, the title of Shah Jahan (King of the World). Malik Ambar’s death in 1626 was the last nail in the Ahmadnagar Sultanate's coffin. Murtada III, the last Nizam Shahi ruler, was captured by Aurangzeb during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1636. The Nizam Shahi territories were divided between the Mughals and the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur.

Aurangzeb and Mughal War of Succession

According to some historians Kankwari Fort within the Sariska National Park in Alwar is the place where Dara Shikoh was held captive by Aurangzeb 

As soon as the fifth Mughal emperor Shah Jahan fell ill in September, 1657, it sparked a deadly war of succession among his four sons – Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. In this fratricidal war of succession, his two daughters Jahanara and Raushanara sided with Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb respectively. 

At the time of the emperor’s sickness, his eldest son Dara was at his bedside in Agra where he resided at the court. Shah Jahan was very fond of Dara and in normal circumstances the latter would have been his successor. Dara was a man of liberal persuasions and spent time in scholarly pursuits. This made him the adversary of the orthodox elements in Islam. Though intelligent and brave, Shuja, then governor of Bengal, loved the life of ease and was pleasure seeking. The youngest, Murad, was the governor of Gujarat. He was somewhat liberal compared to Aurangzeb but was devoid of the qualities needed for leadership. He was also addicted to hard drinking. Aurangzeb was the ablest of the brothers. Apart from being a person of intense energy, he claimed the Mughal throne as zealous champion of Sunni orthodoxy. 

When Shah Jahan fell ill, the three absentee brothers suspected that their father had already died and the news had been suppressed by Dara.

Consequently, Shuja proclaimed himself emperor at Rajmahal, the then capital of Bengal and marched with an army and fleet towards Agra. He reached Benares on January 24, 1658 and was defeated by the army under Sulaiman Shikoh, son of Dara at Bahadurpu.

Murad did the same at Ahmedabad on 5^th December, 1557 and struck coins and had the Khutba read in his own name. Aurangzeb entered into an alliance with Murad. Under the agreement the empire will be partitioned whereas Punjab, Afghanistan, Kashmir and Sindh was to be given to Murad apart form the one-third of the booty. The terms of the agreement were solemnized in the name of God and prophet.

In February 1658, Murad’s forces joined Aurangzeb near Ujjain. Their combined forces signally defeated the imperial forces, sent to contain them under the leadership of Raja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur and Qasim Khan, at the battle of Dharmat, fourteen miles south-south-west of Ujjain, on 15^th April 1658. The proud wife of Jaswant Singh refused to give him shelter because he fled from the battle-field.

After Dharmat, Aurangzeb and Murad crossed the Chambal river and were on their way to Agra. As they reached the plains of Samugarh, eight miles form Agra, they were confronted with Mughal forces under Dara. In the battle of Samugarh, which took place on 29^th May, Dara was decisively defeated and he fled from Agra. He was chased by the Mughal forces from place to place. At last he was executed in September 1659 on the charge of heresy and infidelity.

Soon after his victory at the battle of Samugarh, Aurangzeb marched to Agra and took possession of the Agra fort on the 8^th June 1658. All efforts by Shah Jahan for an amicable settlement for accession to throne ended in vain. Shah Jahan was deprived of throne and was made a prisoner by Aurangzeb who died there on 22^nd January, 1666 at the age of seventy –four. 

From Agra Aurangzeb set out for Delhi on the 13^th June 1658. On the way he made Murad fall into a trap. Murad was apprehended on June 25, 1658 and was kept first in the fort of Salimgarh whence he was removed to the Gwalior fort and was executed on the 4^th December, 1661 on the charge of murdering Ali Naqi who was Murad’s one time Divan.

Already after Murad’s capture, Aurangzeb had crowned himself as emperor in Delhi on 21^st July 1658 in Sheesh Mahal in Delhi's Shalimar  Bagh and assumed the title of Alamgir. But his formal coronation took place on June 5, 1659.

As motioned earlier Shuja was defeated by Dara’s son Suleiman Shikoh, it was now turn of Aurangzeb to get rid of him. Aurangzeb routed Shuja at Khajwah near Allahabad on the January 5, 1659. The defeated prince fled to Arakan where he was killed by the Arkanerese in May 1660. Prince Muhammad, Aurangzeb’s eldest son, who sided with Shuja for a time, was imprisoned for life and died in 1676.

Mumtaz Mahal (1593- 1631)

Mumtaz Mahal ("Jewel of the Palace") is the woman whose mausoleum is popularly known as Taj Mahal, arguably the most famous symbol to royal love in the world. Located in Agra in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, Taj Mahal was built by her husband Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal Emperor.

Originally named Arjumand Bano Begum, Mumtaz Mahal (name given to her by Shah Jahan) was the daughter of Asaf Khan, elder brother of Nur Jehan, wife of Mughal emperor Jehangir, father of Shah Jahan. Apart from her stunning beauty, Mumtaz was a kind hearted lady, also known as a patron of men of letters.

In 1612, Shah Jahan married Arjumand Bano who was his third wife, but his favorite. She bore him 14 children, though most of them died in infancy. Mumtaz died on June 17, 1631 in Burhanpur in childbirth at the age of 39. In order to immortalize the name of Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan ordered the building of Taj Mahal.

Khusrav Khan donning the role of Malik Kafur

Alauddin Khilji the second Sultan of Khilji dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, died in 1316. His general Malik Kafur, who unleashed a reign of terror by persecuting the sons and family members of the late Sultan, was in turn killed by another son of Alauddin Khilji, Mubarak Shah, who became the next Khilji sultan under the title of Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah. Like his father, who was under the influence of Malik Kafur, Mubarak Shah was infatuated with Khusrav Khan, a low-caste (Hindu) Baradu convert from Gujarat who was made the wazir, malik naib and Commander in Chief of the Khilji dynasty by the Sultan against the advice of his nobles.

In April 1320, Mubarak Shah was murdered by Khusrav Khan bringing the Khilji dynasty to an end. Khusrav Khan ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah and tried to strike a veritable reign of terror by murdering the relatives, friends and those loyal to the Khilji Sultan.

If historians like Barni, Yahiya Bin Ahmand Sirhindi, and Ibn Batutah are to be believed, Khusrav gave preferential treatment to the Hindus. This was resented by the Muslim nobles specially the Alali Nobles who invited Gazi Malik, the noble of Dipalpur, to put an end to the reign of Khusrav Khan. Gazi Malik defeated Khusrav at Delhi on the 5th September, 1320 and beheaded Khusrav. Gazi Malik became the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate under the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq and the dynasty, he founded, is known as Tughluq dynasty.

Akbar and His Concubines

As with case with many ancient and medieval cultures, in addition to their legal wives, the rulers have also kept concubines as well. And Mughal rulers were no exceptions. In most cases, these concubines’ served the same purposes as wives. However, they could not legally the men that they served.

These concubines also became the mothers of children of the Mughal monarchs. The children born of these concubines were treated on par with those born of the legal wives. Akbar was a famous keeper of many concubines some of whom bore children to him. Two of Akbar’s three sons, Murad and Daniyal were born of concubines. According to English traveller William Finch, Anarkali who have been portrayed in films and books as the valentine of Saleem (Later Jahangir the fourth Mughal Emperor) was the mother of Daniyal.

The concubines lived in an area which is known in Muslim culture as harem. The harem was not accessible for the male members.

Black Hole Incident of Calcutta

The ‘Black Hole’ was a tragic incident that happened in the run-up to the Battle of Plassey that took place in 1757. The incident served as casus belli for the invasion by the British on Murshidabad.

Siraj ud Daulah, the then Nawab of Bengal, resented to the interference by the East India Company in his province. He was also livid with the company’s abuse of the commercial privileges which was granted by the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar under the firman of 1717.

Though inexperienced and devoid of taking decisions, Siraj ud Daula set out to begin a military campaign against the English. During his military campaigns he captured Calcutta on 20^th June, 1756. Consequently, John Zephaniah Holwell, a narrator of the ‘Black Hole’ tragedy and a number of Europeans were taken prisoners who were confined in a chamber 18 feet by 14 inches, with only on window, throughout the hot and humid night of June in Calcutta. According to Holwell, they numbered about 165 or 170, and the next morning only about 16 came alive, the rest being suffocated to death. This event has been described by the British historians as the Black Hole tragedy.

Holwell’s account of Black Hole tragedy remained in vogue for about two centuries. However, Holwell’s account has been challenged in modern times. Authorities are of the opinion that only sixty prisoners met the death at a result of their confinement at the dungeon. And Siraj ud Daula was in no way personally responsible for the consequence of the incarceration of the prisoners which was arranged by his officers.

The First Anglo-Afghan War: A Disaster for Britain

William Brydon riding into Jalalabad/Wikipedia Commons

The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) caused the greatest misfortune that ever befell the British army and dealt a severe blow to their prestige in India.

With the fall of Napoleonic France in 1814, Russia had emerged as Britain’s potential rival by 1830s. India was the prized possession of the British Empire at that time. Russia has made its Asiatic ambitions clear. But to realize its ambition it would have to gain a diplomatic and military foothold in Afghanistan, an insignificant and impoverished tribal society in the early 19th century.

Instead of entering into an alliance with Afghanistan’s ruler, Dost Mohammad, Britain chose to back Shah Shuja, the deposed ruler of Afghanistan, who had been living in exile in India for three decades.

In 1837, Alexander Burnes, an envoy sent by  George Eden (Lord Auckland), the then Governor-General of India, reached Afghanistan. The Afghanistan’s ruler Dost Mohammad was willing to have the British as his ally but he sought British help in restoring the lost province of Peshawar to him from the Sikh leader Ranjit Singh.  Lord Auckland cited the doctrine of non-intervention in the affairs of the States for his inability to help Dost Muhammad. Consequently the negotiation, which was not conducted in right earnest, failed. Auckland was adamant on deposing Dost Mohammad who was a capable ruler. He chose to back Shah Shuja. Unable to secure British friendship, Dost Muhammad sought Russian help. Until treated insignificantly, Russian envoy Viktevitch was now received by him with favour.  

Now the stage was set for the inevitable war of the English with Afghanistan. Britain initially gained success. Under the supreme command of Sir John Keane, the British army occupied Qandahar in April 1839, stormed Ghazni on 23rd July and Kabul fell into their hands on 3rd August.  Shah Shuja was enthroned in Kabul by the British thirty years after he had lost the throne to Dost Mohammad. Dost Muhammad surrendered in 1840 and was sent to Calcutta as a prisoner.

However, Shah Shuja was not welcomed by the people of Afghanistan. They resented the stationing of the British troops in their own country.  Meanwhile the position of the British army became untenable with the rebellion of the populace. On the 2nd November, 1841, Captain Alexander Burnes was pulled out his house by a mob and murdered along with his brother Charles and lieutenant William Broadfoot.

The situation came to such a pass that British were left with no choice but to evacuate Afghanistan. However, on 6 January 1842, the retreat of the British troops and camp-followers, 16,500 men in all, began from Kabul. Of them only one, the British doctor Dr. Bbrydon, reached Jalalabad to tell the painful story of the destruction of the rest due to the attacks by the rebellious Afghans. The invincibility of the British Empire was shattered.

In 1842 Lord Auckland was replaced as Governor-General of India by Lord Ellenborough who released Dost Mohammad from prison and reinstalled him on the throne in Kabul.

Udham Singh (1899-1940)

Born on 26th December in Sunam Village in Sangrur district of the north-western Indian state of Punjab, Udham Singh was a great revolutionary. He avenged the infamous Jalianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar by murdering Michael O’Dwyer, who was the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab in 1919 when Brigadier General Reginald Dyer, the military commander of Amritsar had ordered the firing on the innocent people who have gathered here to protest the arrest of Congress leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satya Pal under Rowlatt Act.

Udham Singh killed O’Dwyer in London on 13th March 1940. He was arrested on the spot and sentenced to death on 21st July in the same year.

Muhammad Shah Rangila

Aurangzeb, the last great Mughal emperor, died in 1707. Muhammad Shah became Mughal emperor in 1719. During the interregnum, Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar, Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud-Daula ascended the Mughal throne. Jahandar Shah was murdered on the orders of Farrukhsiyar who had the support of the two powerful Mughal nobles Sayyid Abdullah and his brother Sayyid Husain Ali at that time. They are famous in history as Sayyid brothers, the King-makers.

In 1719, Farrukhsiyar were murdered in utter disregard of a Mughal emperor by Sayyid brothers. Rafi-ud-Darajat died of consumption in a few months. Rafi-ud-Daula was addicted to opium and died in 4 months. Sayyid brothers now chose Raushan Akhtar, a son of Jahan Shah (the fourth son of Bahadur Shah I), to be the emperor. Raushan Akhtar ascended the throne under the title of Muhamamd Shah in September 1719.

In the beginning Muhammad Shah was a puppet in the hands of Sayyid brothers who soon began to lose their grip over the Mughal polity. The Mughal emperor, with the support of Chin Qulich Khan or Nizam-ul-Mulk, hatched a conspiracy to get rid of them. In October 1720, Sayyid Husain Ali, then governor of Deccan, was killed. A month later, Sayyid Abdullah was made prisoner and later poisoned to death.

Muhammad Shah celebrating Holi ca. 1737 by Bhupal Singh Photo: Bodleian Library, University of Oxford

When Muhamamd Shah ascended the throne he was only 17 years old. He was given to pleasure. He loved to spend his time in the company of eunuchs and ladies of the harem. This earned him the nickname of Rangila (merrymaker). His favourite courtesan was Gulab Bai. Watching elephant fights in the morning was his favourite pastime. In the evening, he enjoyed the company of jugglers. 

Muhammad Shah Making Love. ca. 1735 Photo: British Library, London

It was during the reign of Muhamamd Shah that Nadir Shah, the ‘Napolean of Iran’ invaded India in 1739. Muhammad Shah died in 1748 and was succeeded to the throne by his only son Ahmad Shah.