Can Harappan Script be Deciphered?

The language of the Indus Civilization, also known as Harappan Civilization in popular parlance, is still unknown. This will remain so until the Indus Civilization script is deciphered. Broadly there are two schools of thoughts as to the nature of the language of the Harappan civilization. According to one, the language belongs to the Indo-European or even Indo-Aryan family. The other school is of the opinion that the language belonged to the Dravidian family. 

Notwithstanding of the close scrutiny of some more than 2500 Harappan inscriptions, the task of decipherment remains arduous. Added to this the shortness of the inscriptions nearly all on seals or amulets tablets, renders it difficult to interpret. 

It’s is due to these challenges the associated problems have attracted a whole lot of authorities, scholars and experts to attempt their solution. What’s your take on that?

Foreign sources of Mauryan history

As a result of Alexander’s invasion of India, a number of Greek travelers came to India. They were first to communicate to the outside world what they saw of India. Famous among them are Onesicritus of Astypalaea, Aristobulus of Cassandreia and Nearchus.

Onesicritus and Nearchus ware officers in Alexander’s army during his invasion of India. Aristobulus was the Greek historian who accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.

Subsequent to these writers came the ambassadors from the Hellenistic kingdoms to the Mauryan court. Their accounts of India were based on a wider and closer observance of the country. Among them the most famous was Megasthenes, who was sent as ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus Nikator, Alexander’s general and the Greek ruler of Persia and Babylon. Other Greek ambassadors or travelers who visited India were Deimachus, Patrocles, Dionysius and Timosthees. Deimachus came to Patliputra as ambassador to the court of Bindusara, son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya.

But none of these above mentioned writers seem to have added anything of real importance to what Megasthenes had written about India. His record of Mauryan India, compiled in Indika, has not survived to us. We learn about his record of Mauryan empire from the quotations of the later Greek writers among whom Strabo, Diodorous, Pliny the Elder, Arrian, Plutarch and Justin are notable.

Apart from the Greek sources mentioned above, the travel accounts of the famous Chinese travellers Fahien and Huen-tsang, who visited India in the 4th and 7th century AD respectively are also useful for the study of the Mauryan empire. While compiling their travelogues about India both these Chinese pilgrims referred to a number of Mauryan monuments.

Nasiruddin Mahmud: Puppet Ruler of Delhi Sultanate

A man of pious disposition, Nasiruddin Mahmud (rule 1246-66) was a grandson of Iltutmish. According to some experts, he was the youngest son of Iltutmish. He succeeded Alauddin Masud Shah to the throne of Slave Dynasty at the age of sixteen. 

Nasiruddin Mahmud was ill-qualified to rule. A puppet in the hands of his courtiers, he was married to the daughter of Ghiyasuddin Balban, one of the leading Turkish nobles. In reciprocation to this Balban was appointed to the post of regent (naib-i-mamlakat) and was conferred with the title of Ulugh Khan (premier Khan) by the Sultan. Except for a brief period (1253-55) when some nobles opposed to Balban instigated Nasiruddin to exile him, Balban was the de facto ruler of the Delhi Sultanate during the Sultan’s reign. Nasiruddin Mahmud died in 1266. Since he had no male heirs, he designated Balban to be the Sultan. 

The fourteenth century historian Isami as well as African traveller Ibn Batuta clearly mention that Nasiruddin was murdered by Balban. However, Yayiha bin Ahmad Sarhindi, author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, does not accuse Balban of regicide and according to him, Nasiruddin Mahmud died a natural death.

Iltutmish: the Real Founder of Delhi Sultanate

Shamsuddin Iltutmish, born in a tribal community of Ilbari in Turkestan, was the real founder of the Slave Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, though he was technically the third ruler of the dynasty. At the time of Qutab-ud-din’s death in 1210 AD, he was the governor of Badaun. After the death of Qutub-Ud-Din Aibak (founder of Slave Dynasty), the Chihalgani (Group of Forty) put Aram Shah as the next ruler. The relation of Aram to Qutub-Ud-Din is in the realm of debate. Aram Shah turned out to be an inept ruler. Iltutmish or (Altmash) was invited by the nobles of delhi to replace Aram who was defeated in the plain of Jud near Delhi. An intelligent and wise person Iltutmish made Delhi the capital of Delhi Sultanate.

The first ten years of Iltutmish’s reign was devoted to consolidating his position which was challenged by his rivals-particularly Tajuddin Yalduz (successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni) and Nasiruddin Qubacha (the Governor of Uch and Multan). Iltutmish defeated both of them in 1216-17, and thus made his position secure.

The reign of Iltutmish saw the coming of the Mongol fury in Central Asia under the leadership of Chengiz Khan, the Mongolian ruler, who had occupied Peking in 1215 and conquered Transoxiana in 1220. Iltutmish must be credited for his diplomatic skill. He saved the nascent kingdom of Slave Dynasty from the menace of the Mongol invasion. The fear of Chengiz khan was such that Iltutmish did not embark on any military expedition till the death the death of Chengiz khan in 1227.

After the Mongol threat subsided, Iltutmish recaptured Multan and Bengal in 1227-28 and became successful in reasserting his authority in Bengal and Bihar in 1229, and captured Ranthambhor and Mandor in Rajasthan. In 1229, he received a deed of investiture from the Abassid Caliph of Baghdad, becoming the first Sultan of Delhi to secure this recognition. The event marked the formal recognition of Iltutmish's independent position as a Sultan as also of the Delhi Sultanate and as a member of the world fraternity of Islamic states. The Turkish rulers sought to secure recognition from the Caliph. The recognition from Calipah was instrumental in legalizing their rule among the orthodox and this also enhanced their prestige as Sultans.  

Iltutmish was the first Sultan of Delhi who issued regular currency and declared Delhi as the capital of his empire.

Iltutmish had a group of faithful slaves to protect him. This group which included 40 Turkish and non-Turkish nobles, was known as Chalisa  or Amir-i-Chahalgani (mentioned at the outset), or The Forty. This group was later liquidated by Balban.

Vasavadatta of Subandhu

Subandhu is one of the greatest writers of Sanskrit prose literature. There is a divergence of opinions among the experts about the exact dating of this great prose writer who is known for his ornate style. However, taking into account the different sources we can come to the conclusion that he probably flourished in the late 6th and early 7th century AD.

Subandhu is known by his only work, named after its heroine Vasavadatta. Vasavadatta tells of the vicissitudes of her love for the prince Kandarpaketu. The story of Vasavadatta, however, ends on a happy note. This masterpiece of Sanskrit prose literature is perhaps the first work in the language that has referred to Chess or similar game. Subanndhu is the master of the language.

Tripartite Struggle over Kanauj

                                                    Tripartite Struggle

Since the accession of Harshavadhana or Harsha in 606 AD, Kanyakubja (the modern Kanauj in the state of Uttar Pradesh) was to be one of the largest and most prosperous cities of North India till the coming of Muslims. Not much is known about the kingdom of Kanauj after Harsha’s death in 647 AD resulting in a great confusion due to the absence of his heirs. 

Kanyakubja came for a short period under the hands of an usurper, Arunasva who attacked Wang Xuance who had come to the court of Harsha as ambassador of the Chinese emperorTang Taizong. However, Wang Xuance, with the help of an army from Tibet and Nepal, succeeded in capturing Arunasva who was taken back to China to spend his days in attendance on the Tang Emperor. 

About AD 730 we find a famous king named Yasovarman establishing a kingdom at Kanauj. His invasion of Gauda (Bengal) formed the subject of the Prakrit poem Gaudvadha (Slaying of the king of Bengal), composed by Vakapatiraja in the eighth century AD. After Yasovarman, three kings, namely Vijrayudha, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha, ruled over Kanauj between close of the eight century till the second decade of the ninth century. Talking advantage of the weakness of these Ayudha rulers and attracted by the immense strategic and economic potentialities of the kingdom of Kanauj, the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Bhinmal (Rajasthan), the Palas of Bengal and Bihar and the Rashtrakutas of the Manyakheta (Maharashtra) fought against each other with a view to having control over the area.  

This tripartite struggle for Kanauj lingered for almost two centuries and ultimately ended in favour of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Nagabhata II who made the city the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom, which ruled for nearly two centuries. Kanyakubja was plundered by Mahmud Ghazni who made seventeen raids on India between 1001 and 1027.

Shankaracharya: Greatest Hindu Theologian

Shankaracharya is one of the giants of Hindu philosophy, a thinker who had--and who still has--a profound influence on Indian thought.

image source: sringeri.net

Shankaracharya, or Adi Shankaracharya, was born at Kaladi, presently a village in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. One of the greatest Hindu philosophers and teachers of the post Gupta period, he travelled the length and breadth of India disputing with the Buddhists.

Shankaracharya is said to have lived from 788 – 820. During his short life span, he did much to popularize devotion of Shiva among the people of India. He composed extensive commentaries on the Brahma Sutras of Badarayans and the chief Upanishads, Bhagwat Gita and founded an order of Hindu monks to carry on his work.

For Shankara all the Vedic literature was sacrosanct and unquestionably true. He succeeded in harmonizing the paradoxes in the Vedic literature. Shankara maintained that the only reality was Brahman, the impersonal world soul of the Upanishads with which the individual soul is identical. In fact his Brahman is not really different from the void or the nirvana of the Mahayana Buddhism. Hence, he is also called a crypto Buddhist by his opponents.

The doctrine of Shankaracharya is often known as advaita (‘allowing no second’ i. e. pure monism) or kevaladvaita (strict monism).

Apart from being one of the greatest minds of the world, Shankaracharya was an able organizer. He established four famous monasteries at Sringeri (in Chikmagalur district Karnataka) Dwarka (in Jamnagar district of Gujarat), Puri in Orissa and Badrinath on the snowy heights of the Himalayas in the state of Uttrakhand.

Shankaracharya died at a comparatively early age at Kedarnath in Uttarakhand. His place in Hinduism can be compared to that of Saint Thomas Aquinas in the Roman Catholic Church.

How Buddhism Came to Tibet

In ancient times Tibet was not an isolated region as it is today. It lay in the much frequented route from China and Nepal. In the seventh century AD, Buddhism was introduced to Tibet by Srong-tsan Gampo, one of the most illustrious kings of Tibet.

Gampo was married to Princesses Wen Cheng from China and another Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal. It was under the influence of his two wives that he was attracted to Buddhism. In China and Nepal Buddhism had already made its mark. Gampo is credited with introducing in Tibet Indian alphabets. This was the beginning of a new culture and civilisation in that land.

Many Buddhist from Tibet, as in the case of China, came to India. Buddhist monks from Tibet came to study at the universities of Nalanda, Vikramshila and Odantapuri. As a reciprocation, many Indian Buddhist visited Tibet. In the eighth century AD from Nalanda (a famous centre of learning in ancient Bihar) Buddhist monk Padmasambhava went to Tibet and succeeded in converting the land into Buddhism.

The Pala rulers of Bengal (Bihar was included in Bengal at that time) who were great patrons of Buddhism, contributed a lot to reform Buddhism in Tibet. Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thunderbolt) form of Buddhism was established in Tibet in the eleventh century AD as a result of missions sent from the Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila in Bihar. Vajrayana is synonymous with Tantric Buddhism. Great Buddhist monk Atish Dipankar from Bengal, who visited Tibet in the 11th century during the reign of Nayapala, is still venerated there.

Many Buddhist works have been translated into Tibetan. Tanjur and Kanjur are the two classical Tibetan translations of Buddhist sacred texts .

Ram Raja Mandir (Temple of King Ram )

Ram Raja Mandir, a palace-turned-temple, is located at Orchha, a town in Niwari district of of Madhya Pradesh. This is the only temple in the world where Lord Ram is worshipped as a king. So the name Ram Raja (king) Temple. Orcha was the seat of power of the princely state of the same name.

An interesting legend is attached to the worshipping of Ram as King. The legend has it that in 1600 AD queen of King Madhukar Shah, the third Bundela ruler of Orchha and contemporary of Mughal Emperor Akbar, brought idols of Lord Rama and Lord Ganesha from Ayodhya to the capital. The idol of Ram was supposed to be installed in the Chaturbhuj Temple. The idol was kept at the palace as the Chaturbhuj Temple was yet to be completed. Thereupon after the completion of the Chaturbhuj Temple, the idol that was to be installed in the new temple did not move. This was construed as a divine miracle and the palace was turned into a temple. This is the reason that the idol of Ram faces the palace not the temple.

Since then Lord Rama is given a ‘guard of honour’ in place of aarti. The government of Madhya Pradesh has also recognized Ram as a king and as such has placed jawans who give guard of honour to King Ram. In Orcha none is given guard of honour as Ram is the King here.

The two towers built on the corridors of the Ram Raja Mandir are the centre of attraction for the people. The tunnels underneath these towers were used by the members of the royal family to move outside.

Bindusara, Slayer of Foes

After a rule of 24 years, Chandragupta Maurya, the first Mauryan Emperor, was succeeded by his son Bindusara. According to Jain tradition, Bindusara's mother was Durdhara. The Greek historian Athenaeus calls him Amitrochates (Sanskrit Amitraghata “Slayer of Foes” or Amitrakhada “Devourer of Foes”). It is not known how he got the title of Amitrochates. 

Bindusara was the father of Asoka, the greatest ruler of India. The Jain scholar Hemachandra, the court poet of the Chalukyas of Anhilwara, and the Tibetan historian Taranatha mention that Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, was also prime minster of Bindusara. 

Bindusara maintained friendly relations with the Hellenic world that had been established in the later days of his father. According to Athenaeus, Bindusara requested the Syrian king Antiochus I “to present him sweet wine, dried figs and a philosopher”. Thereupon, the Seleucid king of Syria sent him the figs and wine and replied , “The Greek law forbids a philosopher to be exported.” Pliny states that Ptolemy Philladelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his ambassador to India. 

Bindusara had a large family. The Fifth Rock Edict issued by Ashoka states that he had many brothers and sisters. Two of these brothers are named in Divyadana as Susima and Vigatasoka, whom the Sri Lankan Chronicles name Summan and Trishya; the former was Asoka’s step brother. Asoka’s mother was named Subhadrangi or Dharma, and Trishya was his youngest brother. Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana (also named Susima) as his Viceroy at Taxila and Asoka at Ujjaini. The Divyadana tells the story of a revolt in Taxila. When it went out of control for Sumana or Susima, Bindusara deputed Asoka to restore order.

Opinions on the Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857, also known as First War of Indian Independence, shook the very foundation of the British Empire in India. Some of the famous quotes related to the Revolt: 

“The crisis came at first as a mere military mutiny, it speedily changed its character and became a national insurrection.” – G. B. Malleson 

“It is mutiny or is it a national revolt?” – Benjamin Disraeli, British Conservative leader and Prime Minister. 

"What began as a fight for religion ended as a war for independence for there is not the slightest doubt that rebels wanted to get rid of the alien government and restore the old order of which the king of Delhi was the rightful representative.” –S.N.Sen 

“On the whole, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that so-called First National War of Independence is neither First, nor National, nor a war of independence.” -R.C. Majumadar. 

“It is in fact an anachronism to describe the mutiny as the first essay towards modern independence. It was rather, in its political aspect, the last effort of the old conservative India.” – Percival Spear.

Arthashastra of Kautilya

Of all the secular literary sources on the history of the Mauryas, the single most important source is Arthasashtra, a treatise on polity, ascribed to Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chankya. Kautilya was the minister of Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya who overthrew the last ruler of the oppressive Nanda Dynasty of Magadh. 

Arthashastra was discovered in 1905 by R. Sama Shashtri, the Sanskrit scholar and librarian at Oriental Research Institute (ORI) in Mysore. Oriental Research Institute (ORI) in Mysore was founded by Mysore’s Wodeyar rulers in 1891. 

Arthashastra is a comprehensive source of information on statecraft and public administration. Divided into fifteen adhikaranas (sections) and 180 prukaranas (chapters), this text on polity is written in both prose and verse in Sanskrit. There is considerable debate on the exact dating of Arthasashtra. Since there is no mention of Chandragupta or Mauryan rulers of Patliputra in the work, some authorities including Winternitz, Jolly, H.C. Raychaudhuri are of the view that Arthasashtra is a later work and as such cannot be accepted as a source material for the Mauryan period. However, at the colophon of Arthasashtra, it is recorded that the book was composed by “a person who owned the land that was under the control of Nandas kings”. Historians like Radha Kumud Mukherjee, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, Romila Thapar and Krishna Rao are of the view that it is definitely a work composed during the Mauryan period and is written by the Prime Minister or advisor to the first Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. What appears plausible that Arthasashtra was written in the Mauryan period and subsequently elaborated in the later period.

Sangha: The Buddhist Order

The Buddha has two kinds of disciples – lay worshippers (upasakas) and monks (bhikkus or shramanas). The latter were organized into the Sangha or congregation. The membership of the Sangha was open to all, male or female above twenty years of age and who were free from leprosy, consumption and other infections diseases. However, slaves, soldiers and debtors were not allowed to enter the Sangha without the permission of their superior. The admission of Prajapati Gautami, the widowed stepmother of the Buddha, to the Sangha, at the innstance of Ananda, one of chief disciples and consatant companion of the Buddha, marked the beginninng of an order of Buddhist nun. The Buddha had reservations on women's entry innto Sangha and even predicted that allowing women to become nun will make the survival of his teachings difficult. Anyone from the age of eight might become a member of Sangha. However in order to become full member of the Order, one has to be at least 20 years old. There were no caste restrictions. The sangha was governed democratically and was empowered to enforce discipline amongst its members. The life of monks and the nuns was strictly governed by laws and the ten commandments, and there was no room for personal likes or dislikes. However, the great defect of the Sangha system was the absence of a central coordinating authority. The Sangha, founded by the Buddha, still exists in its original for in Mayanmar, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Amongst the most famous Bhikkhus at the time of the Buddha were; Sariputta, who was profound scholar of the dhamma; Moggallana, who had the greatest supernatural powers; Ananda, Maha Kassapa, the president of the Buddhist Council held at Rajagriha soon after the Buddha’s death; Upali, master of Vinaya; Anuruddha, master of right Mindfulness; and Rahula, the Buddha’s son.

Military Conquests of Jahangir

Soon after ascending the Mughal throne, Jahangir, the fourth Mughal Emperor, allowed a chain with bells to be hung outside his palace to enable petitioners to bring their grievances to the notice of the emperor himself. He promulgated twelve edicts or ordinances for the general welfare and better government of the empire. Although these ordinances confirmed Jahangir’s desire to continue his father Akbar’s liberal policies, in practice they remained ineffective.

At the beginning of his reign in 1606, Jahangir has to face the rebellion of his son Khusrau in Lahore. Khusrau has the blessings of some of the powerful nobles of the empire. Khusrau’s rebellion was personally suppressed by Jahangir. Khusrau was captured, blinded, confined and subsequently killed by Khurram (name of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal Emperor, before his ascension to the Mughal Throne) in 1622.

The fifth Sikh Guru Arjan, who had given shelter to Khusrau at Taran Taran, was fined. When he refused to pay the fine, he was executed by Jahangir. This was an unwise political decision because this sowed the seeds of acrimonious relations between the Mughals and the Sikhs.

The first military campaign undertaken by Jahangir was against Rana Amar Singh, son of Rana Pratap of Mewar. The Mughal expeditions sent against Mewar in 1606 and 1608-09 proved indecisive, but in 1613-14 the campaign led by Khurram (third son of Jahangir) proved decisive and Rana Amar Singh submitted to the Mughals in 1615. Jahangir offered most liberal terms to Mewar and thus ended a long struggle between Mewar and the Mughals. The emperor installed two life-size marble statues of Rana Amar Singh and his son Karan in the garden of his palace at Agra. However, the glory and pride of Mewar was gone.

Jahangir pursued Akbar’s plan of territorial expansion in the Deccan. The first target was a half-conquered Nizam Shahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar. However, during the reign of Jahangir the situation in Ahmadnagar had undergone a sea change for the better thanks to the untiring efforts and ability of the Abyssinian Prime Minister Malik Ambar. From 1608 onwards a number of military expeditions were sent by Jahangir against Ahmadnagar but in spite of the expenditure of millions of rupees and loss of thousand of lives, the Mughal frontier in the Deccan did not advance a single mile beyond the limits achieved in 1605.

Subjugation of the Kangra Fort was another military achievement by Jahangir. The fort surrendered to the Mughal rule on November 16, 1620. Jahangir visited the fort next year and ordered the slaughter of a cow here and the construction of a mosque within the fort.

The greatest failure of Jahangir’s reign was the loss of Kandahar to Persia. Kandahar was the bone of contention between the Mughals and the Persians. Shah Abbas of Persia (1587-1629), one of the greatest rulers of his time, outwardly professing friendship towards the Mughals, captured Kandahar in June 1622. The loss of Kandahar dealt a severe blow to the Mughal prestige in Central Asia.

Contribution of Jainism to Indian culture

Ranakpur Jain Temples

When Jainism, the “religion of the Jinas (Conquerors)” came into being in the 6th century BC, the Hindu religious texts were all in Sanskrit while those of Buddhism were in Pali which is still the religious language of the Buddhists in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and South-east Asia. The Jainas however, opted for Prakrit, though at different places texts were written in local languages as well. A large number of Ashokan edicts are in Prakrit. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, himself preached in ardha Magadhi (Half Magdhi). Secondly, the Jain philosophy has certainly enriched India’s thought. The five vows ahimsa, satya, asateya, aprigraha and brahmacharya are relevant even today.

In the early centuries of the Christian Era, the Jains (like their Buddhist counterparts) constructed stupas adorned with railings, gateways with carved figures and pillars. The image of a Tirthankara (ford maker, one of the 24 teachers of Jainism) from Lohanipur (Patna) dating back to the Mauryan period is one of the earliest Jaina figures. The Hathigumpha cave of Kharvela (with its famous inscription) and the Khandagiri and Udaigiri caves of the state of Orissa contain early Jaina relics.

During the Kushana period Mathura was a great centre of Jaina art. A votive plaque (ayapatta) depicting the cross-legged naked figure of a Tirthankara is really wonderful. The practice of making Jaina images continued throughout the Gupta period and afterwards. The gigantic statues of Bahubali (called Gometashvara) at Sharvana Belgola and Karkalla, both in Karnataka are real wonders.

Located in Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu, Sittanavasal Cave is home to some of the best cave paintings of India. Sittanavasal is distorted form of Siddhanivasan meaning abode of Siddhas saints. An inscription written in Brahmi script and belonging to 3rd century BC has been found here. According to the inscription, these cave temples were constructed by Jain monks. The Paintings of tehe cave temples were made in frescoe technique.

The Jain temples were constructed at all places of pilgrimage. The Temples at Ranakpur, near Jodhpur in Rajasthan and the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu in the state of Rajasthan are the products of superb craftsmanship.

The Jain tower in the fort of Chittor in Rajasthan is another specimen of architectural engineering. Innumerable manuscripts in palm leaves were written down and some of them were painted with gold dust. These have given rise to a new school of painting known as the “Western Indian School’

The Jainism has played a very significant role in the development of language, philosophy, architecture, sculpture and painting in India. It never became a dominant religion, nor was it embraced by a large number of people, and it never crossed the frontiers of India, but its presence in Indian art and culture was always felt and admired. The same is true to this day.

Chittor Conquest of Ala-ud-din Khilji

In 1303 AD, Ala-ud-din Khilji attacked Chittor in Rajasthan. Chittor, the capital of Mewar, was controlled by Guhila Rajputs. The geographical location of Chittor kept it immune to external invasion.

Being an imperialist Ala-ud-din thought of sending an expedition to Chittor, ruled by Rana Ratan Singh at that time. However according to several Rajput sources and Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmavat, the principal reason of Ala-ud-din’s invasion of Chittor was to acquire Rata Singh’s queen Padmini who was of exquisite beauty. The story of Padmini does not seem plausible because it is not explicitly mentioned in any contemporary sources. Even the celebrated poet and writer Amir Khusrau, who accompanied Ala-ud-din during this expedition, does not mention anything about the episode.

Durig the siege of Chittor the Rajputs showed exemplary valour. Their two brave leaders, named Gora and Badal, showed utmost bravery. But the army of Chittor was no match for the organized strength of Delhi Sultanate. After a long siege of eight moths, Chittor was captured by Ala-ud-din, who renamed the city Khizrabad, after the name of his eldest son, Khizr Khan. Rajput women preferred death to dishonor and performed Jauhar (self immolation). According to Tod, “that horrible rite, the Jauhar, where the females are immolated to preserve them from pollution or captivity. The funeral pyre was lighted within the ‘great subterranean retreat’, in chambers impervious to the light of the day, and the defenders of Chittor beheld in procession the queens, their own wives and daughters, to the number of several thousands. The fair Padmini closed the throng….They were conveyed to the cavern, and the opening closed upon them, leaving them to find security from dishonor in the devouring element”.

According to Amir Khusrav, 30000 Hindus were killed followed by demolition of many temples.

Ranthambhore Expedition of Ala-ud-din Khilji

Ala-ud-din was the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate (the combined period of five dynasties from 1206 to 1526). He succeeded to the throne in 1296 by killing his uncle and father-in-law Jalal-ud-din Firuz, who founded the Khilji Dynasty in 1290 by murdering Kaiquabad, the last ruler of the Ilabari Dynasty, known more popularly as the Slave Dynasty. 

Ala-ud-din was an imperialist. With his accession begins, as Sir Wolseley Haig says, “the imperial period of the Sultanate”. During the time of Ala-ud-din, Ranthambhore was ruled by the chivalrous Rajput chief Hamir Deva. An expedition sent by the Sultan in 1299 met with only limited success. The Rajputs could not be subdued completely. So Ala-ud-din himself marched to Ranthambhore and captured it in 1301. Hamir Deva was put to death. Ranmal, the minster who betrayed his master Hamir, was also killed by Ala-ud-din’s order. 

However, according to Hammir Mahakakavya, written by the Jaina poet Nayachandra Suri, Hamir Deva cut off his head with his own sword when he realized that he had been betrayed by his two generals Ratipala and Krishnapala, and his end was near.