80000 year old Stone Tools & Weapons unearthed near Chennai

Archaeologists have unearthed a large number of stone tools and weapons dating back to more than 80,000 years ago from a dry lake bed in Singadivakkam, a remote village some 65 km south of Chennai, according to report published in Times of India.

The discovery was the result of an ongoing excavation work, in cooperation with the Archaeological Survey of India , by Professor S Rama Krishna Pisipaty and his student S Shanmugavelu of the department of Sanskrit and culture at Sri Chandrasekaharendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya in Enathur, Kancheepuram.

According to Professor S Rama Krishna Pisipaty and his team, so far hand-axes, choppers, scrappers and borers as well as microlithic tools (small stone implements) and pointed tools of different sizes and shapes have been found. The tools could have been used for hunting and fishing.

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Ancient Greek girl brought back to life

Greek scientists and archaeologists achieved the wonderful feat when they gave an ancient Athenian girl from the 5th century BC a face by using her bones, found in an ancient mass grave near the ancient Athenian cemetery of Keramikos by archeologist Effie Valavani.

The girl named 'Myrtis' by the scientists, has been brought back to life through facial reconstruction from her intact skull and teeth.

Myrtis is now one of the prized possessions of the National Hellenic Archeological Museum of Athens.

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Architecture in Ancient India

In ancient India, life was dominated by religion to a large extent and so it is of no surprise that ancient Indian architecture includes mostly religious structures. Since the people of ancient India also had a political purpose there were many secular structures in ancient times.

The first organized art activity in India belongs to the Mauryan period. The description of the city of Patliputra (modern Patna in Bihar) and the royal palace in the city by Megasthenes, who came to India during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, suggests that the first Mauryan emperor built the buildings of the city. Other Mauryan architecture include the rock-cut Chaiya halls or cave dwellings in the Barabar and Nagarjuna Hills of Gaya in the sate of Bihar, the edict bearing and the non edict bearing Asokan pillars.

Stupas
Tradition has it that Stupas or tumuli were over the divided ashes of the Buddha. These stupas were built by Ashoka, the greatest Mauryan emperor, in honour of the Buddha in many parts of India and Nepal. The stupa in Nepal is in its original form. Chief among the stupas built by the great emperor are those at Bharhut and Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh.

Among the later stupas, those of Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh and Nalanda in Bihar are very famous. Sarnatha, near Varanasi, in the state of Uttar Pradesh, was the place where the Buddha gave his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. Nalanda, in the state of Bihar, was modified for seventh consecutive times.

Cave temples
The cave dwellings of Barabar Hills and Nagarjuna Hills of Gaya were dedicated by Ashoka to the monks of Ajivikas sect. Under the Satavahans, the largest caves were excavated. The most famous examples of cave temples is that of Ajanta and Ellora in the state of Maharashtra. Kailashnath temple, hewn from solid rock, is the foremost example of rock cut temple architecture in ancient India.




Mahabodhi Temple at gaya

Temple architecture
Most remarkable of the temples of the Gupta period was the temple of Deogarh near Jhansi. Dating back to the Mahabodhi temple at Gaya in Bihar is a famous temple of ancient India. Temple architecture reached its apogee in south India during the reign of Chalukya and Pallava rulers in the 6th -8th centuries. The zenith of the Pallava style was reached in the shore temple at Mamallapuram.

Shah Jahan the Fifth Mughal Emperor

Accession to the Throne 

Shah Jahan (1628-58) was in Deccan when his father Jahangir died in the month of October in 1627. At Lahore, Nur Jahan, one of the wives of Jahangir, proclaimed her son-in-law Shahryar as the emperor, while Asaf Khan, father of Mumtaz Mahal (Shah Jahan’s wife in whose memory Taj Mahal was built) put Dawar Baksh, son of Khusrav (brother of Shah Jahan), on the throne as a stop-gap emperor till the return of Shah Jahan to Agra from Deccan. When Shah Jahan arrived at Agra in February 1628, Dawar Baksh, the “sacrificial lamb’ was deposed and sent in exile to Persia. Asaf Khan defeated, captured and blinded Shahryar. Now decks were clear for Shah Jahan who ascended the Mughal throne at Agra in February 1628. However, Shah Jahan was paid back in his own coin when during his last days when two of his own sons were executed. 

Military Conquests of Shah Jahan 

The first three years of Shah Jahan’s reign were marked by the rebellions of the Bundela Chief Juhar Singh, son of Bir Singh Bundela and of Khan Jahan Lodi. After suppressing these rebellions, he ousted the Portuguese from Hugli and occupied it in 1632. The Nizam Shahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar was finally annexed to the Mughal empire. In 1636-37, Shah Jahan led from the front and himself arrived in the Deccan and compelled Bijapur and Golconda to accept the Mughal Suzerainty and pay annual tribute. Persia had captured Kandahar during the reign of Jahangir, but no attempt was made to recapture it till 1639. The opportunity came in 1639, when Ali Mardan Khan, the discontented Persian Governor of Kandahar, surrendered the fort to the Mughals without fighting. However, Shah Abbas II of Persia wrested Kandahar from the Mughals in 1649. Subsequently, Shah Jahan sent three expeditions to recover Kandahar, but all proved to be miserable failure. 

Last years of Shah Jahan 

The last years of Shah Jahan were spent in misery. In 1658, he was made prisoner by his son Aurangzeb who came out victorious in the terrible war of succession that took place among the sons of Shah Jahan. The war for succession continued till 1661 and in between 1658 and 1661 all the remaining sons were killed or executed. Shah Jahan passed the remaining years of his life in captivity. While in prison, he was badly treated by Aurangzeb. All his efforts for reconciliation ended in naught. At last he “bowed to the inevitable, and like a child that cries itself to sleep, ceased to complain”. Shah Jahan died at the age of seventy-four, on the 22nd January, 1966.

Estimate of Shah Jahan 

The reign of Shah Jahan has been described by many authorities as the ‘climax’ or ‘golden age’ of the Mughal empire. Mughal architecture under him reached its pinnacle. Several foreign tarvellers who visited India during his reign, have left a vivid account of his reign. Of these, two Frenchmen Bernier and Travenier and an Italian adventurer Manucci, the author of the Storio Dor Mogor, are worth mentioning.

Humayun : The Fugitive Mughal Emperor

Humayun's Tomb in Delhi

Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India in 1526, was succeeded by his eldest son Humayun who inherited “a monarchy which could be held together only by the continuance of war conditions which in times of peace was weak, structureless and invertebrate.” 

When Babur died in 1530, Humayun was 23 years old. Since father's conquests had not been consolidated in the short span of four years, the army lacked cohesiveness and the administration an effective machinery.

The name Humayun (meaning "the Fortunate”) is rather a misnomer. Though the second Mughal emperor, he had to spend his life as a wanderer almost all through his life. He lost the nascent Mughal kingdom and when he regained it, he did not live long enough to rule it.

Humayun was born in Kabul in 1508. He ascended the throne  on December 30, 1530 four days after death of Babur. 

The imperial treasury was almost bankrupt and beyond the frontiers powerful political forces, such as Gujarat, Malwa and Bengal, were up in arms against the Mughals. On top of it Humayun divided the empire inherited from his father among his three brothers, Kamran, Hindal and Askari. The Afghans, who had not yet been crushed, also raised their heads. Of them, Sher Khan, known as Sher Shah Suri, proved be the most formidable enemy of Humayun, and after defeating the latter at Chausa and Kanauj in 1540, completely shattered his prospects.

After his final defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri, the Mughal empire in India was temporarily out of picture and Humayun had to pass nearly fifteen years (1540-55) in exile. During his wanderings in the deserts of Sind, Humayun married Hamida Banu Begam, daughter of Shaikh Ali Ambar Jaini, who had been a preceptor to Humayun’s brother Hindal. While he was at Amarkot (now in Pakistan), where his son Akbar was born on 23rd November, 1542.

After the untimely death of Sher Shah from an accidental explosion at Kalinjar, the time was ripe for Humayun to restore the Mughal Empire and he succeeded in doing so. But shortly after regaining the empire Humayun died in accident on the 24th January, 1556.

Humayun founded a city at Delhi named the Dinpanah (World refuge). However no remains are available of this first Mughal city. He took great interest in astrology and mathematics. Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad, author of Tabaqat-i-Akbari, writes about his generosity,"All the wealth of Hindustan would not have sufficed to maintain his generosity." Humayun was highly addicted to opium.

Humayun's tomb in Delhi is an important Mughal monument which attracts visitors in large numbers. It was commissioned by his wife Bega Begum or Haji Begum.

Babur Not the real founder of Mughal Empire

Zahirudding Muhammad Babur, better known simply today as Babur, who defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate at the first battle of Panipat on the 21st April, 1526, founded the Mughal empire in India. However, it seems that this Central Asian adventurer was not interested in setting up of an empire in India. 

According to eminent historian R. P. Tripathi, Babur’s conquest of Hindustan was “a result of chance thought”. As a matter of fact, he was invited to invade the Lodi ruler by some of the disgruntled nobles of the Delhi sultanate. According to some authorities, Rana of Mewar, Sangram Singh or Rana Sanga, had also entered into some kind of deal with Babur. 

Babur was a descendant of Timur on his father’s side and of Chengiz khan on the side of his mother. The Mughals loved to call Timurids because they were so proud of their connections with Timur. On the death of his father Umar Shaikh Mirza, Babur inherited the ancestral principality of Farghana (now in Uzbekistan) in 1494. 

The first battle of Panipat was just the beginning of the Mughal rule. The real foundation of Mughal rule was laid by the greatest Mughal ruler Akbar in 1556. When Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the political power in India was being shared by the Rajputs and the Afghans. 

But Babur’s conquest of India would have been incomplete till he defeated the Rana Sanga, who was the most powerful Rajput ruler of the period and certainly a more formidable adversary than Ibrahim Lodi. 

Consequently, a decisive battle took place on the 16th March, 1527 at Khanua, a village some 60 km west of Agra, between the forces of Babur and Rana Sanga. In this battle Rana Sanga, who was joined by the rulers of Marwar, Gwalior, Ajmer, Amber and Chanderi and Sultan Mahmud Lodi (brother of Ibrahim Lodi), was comprehensively defeated and Khanua cemented Babur’s victory at Panipat. In 1528, he captured Chanderi from a Rajput Chief Medini Rai despite the desperate opposition of the Rajputs. On 6th May 1929, Babur inflicted a crushing defeat on the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi at the battle of Ghagra in Bihar. These conquests made Babur the master of Northern India, but he was not able to enjoy the fruits of his conquests because shortly afterwards he died at Agra at the age of forty seven on December 26, 1530. 

Babur’s body was first buried at Arambagh in Agra. However, it was later carried to his favourite place Kabul where he was laid in one his favourite gardens. 

Apart from being a formidable conqueror, Babur was also an accomplished poet in Persian and his autobiography Tuzuk –i-Baburi, written in his mother tongue (Turky). Tuzuk –i-Baburi was translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan in 1590, into English by Leyden and Erskine in 1826. The Memoirs were translated into French in 1871.

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Kalna - The Temple City of West Bengal

Situated on the west bank of the Bhagirathi river, Ambika Kalna, known as Kalna in common parlance, was once a prosperous port town in the state of West Bengal.

Located some 80km from Kolkata in the district of Purba Bardhaman (East Burdwan), the grandeur of Kalna can be ascertained by the presence of many beautiful temples featuring intricate terracotta ornamentation. Built by the Maharajas of Bardhaman, these magnificent temples are the mute spectator to Kalna’s glorious past.

Kalna is also home to religious structures dedicated to Sree Chaitanya, the greatest Vaishnavite saint of Bengal.

Nava Kailash or 108 Shiv Mandirs, Pratapeshvara Mandir, Lalji Mandir, Krishnachandra Mandir, Gopalbari Mandir and Anantabasudev Mandir are some of the famous temples of Kalna.

ASI book on John Marshal Launched ‎

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is bringing out an illustrative book on John Marshall, under whose directions excavations were carried out in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa leading to the discovery of one the greatest civilizations of the world.
From 1902 to 1928, John Marshal was the first and longest severing Director-General of ASI which undertakes archaeological researches and protection of the India’s cultural heritage.

The collection, ‘The Marshall Albums Photography and Archaeology', contains some rare photographs taken by Marshall and will be made available for public access in more than 99 libraries of the ASI across the country.

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Ambapali, the Royal Courtesan of Vaishali

During my college days, I had an opportunity to read a novel by eminent Hindi writer Acharya Chatursen. The novel entitled Vaishali Ki Nagarvadhu was an interesting read. As the name suggests, the novel describes Ambapali, as the Nagarbadhu of Vaisali, hailed as the first republic of the world.

A royal courtesan, Ambapali, variously known as Amrapali or Ambapalika, has been accorded a place of high respect in the Buddhist Scriptures. A contemporary of the Buddha, Ambapali was wealthy, highly intelligent and famous far and wide. Her matchless beauty together her youth, talent and intelligence made Amrapali the cynosure and dream of entire Vaishali. While passing through Vaishali, the Buddha accepted her invitation to dine with her. This indicates that the better status of the courtesan in ancient India. 

The early life of Ambapali is veiled in obscurity. She was named because she was born at the foot of a mango tree in one of the royal gardens in the Vaishali kingdom. A woman of amazing beauty, Ambapali participated in the contest to become Nagarvadhu (courtesan) of Vaishali. This leads us to conclusion that there was no stigma attached to become Nagarvadhu at that time. 

Ambapali is said to have become a Buddhist nun and one of the most beautiful poems of the Pali Canon is attributed to her. When Bimbisara, the powerful Magadhan Emperor, heard of Ambapali, he became jealous and thought of producing in his kingdom a courtesan who would be superior to her. Hence, Salavati came into picture and she also became famous in Magadha. The glory and prosperity of Vaishali was always a thorn in the eyes of Bimbisara.

Salavati was the mother of Jivaka, the royal physician of Rajgriha, the Magadhan capital. 

Daniela Lavender to act in Ben Kingsley’s TAJ

Brazilian-born actress Daniela Lavender is all set to play Kandahari Begum, the first wife of 6th Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, builder of Taj Mahal in Ben Kingsley’s much awaited venture Taj, a historical saga based on the events leading up to the building of the Taj Mahal. In January this year she was in Agra with Ben Kingsley who also happens to be her husband.

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The last days of Krishna

Following the Mahabharata War when the Pandavas were safely settled in Kuru land, Krishna returned to Dwarka where he ruled the Yadavas for 36 years. There was a constant bickering among the Yadava chiefs who were hell bent to exterminate each other. This led Krishna to ban strong drink in the kingdom. However during a festival when the ban was relaxed, fight broke out between the Yadavas and engulfed the whole city. Despite all his divinity Krishna was not able to bring order to the kingdom. The whole Yadava clan was mostly destroyed. His son Pradyumma was killed before his eyes and his elder brother also died.

Then at a festival, fight broke out between the Yadavas who exterminated each other. The clan was mostly destroyed. Krishna dejectedly retired into the forest. Once he was sitting under a tree musing the loss of his family and friends, a hunter mistook his partly visible foot for a deer and shot an arrow piercing his heel which was his vulnerable spot. The city of Dwarka was swallowed by the sea.

Marco Polo: Prince of Medieval Travellers

                    Kublai Khan meeting Marco Polo / Image Credit

Rightly called the prince of Medieval travellers, Italian traveler Marco Polo (1254-1324) was a Venetian merchant whose travel account, the Book of Ser Marco Polo, is an invaluable reservoir of history, geography and the economic history of India during the period. 

In 1271 Marco Polo set out on a trading expedition to Cathay (China). He was warmly received by the Tartar emperor Kublai Khan and spent 17 years at his court. While he was on his way from China to Persia as an escort to the princess of Kublai Khan’s family, a bride for the ruler of Persia, he visited South India in 1292-93. 

Marco Polo returned to Italy in 1295. He has no intention of writing a book. But luckly for us he met a professional author, Rustichello da Pisa, also known as Rusticiano, in prison where he found himself in 1298 due to his participation in the war against Genoa. He dictated Rusticiano of Pisa the story of his adventures. Marco Polo’s account of the states of the south India and the beliefs, manners and practices of the people of South India is amazingly accurate.

Fa-hsien: Famous Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim

A native of sanxi (Shansi), Fa-hsien was a Chinese monk who came to India on a pilgrimage tour during the reign of Chandra Gupta II ((reigned c 376-415). His motive for coming to India was to acquire authentic copies of the Buddhist scriptures and to visit the places associated with the Buddha. Being of religious nature, he gives information about temples and monasteries and the state of Buddhism in India at that time. He was so engrossed in the religious pursuits that he even doesn’t mention the name of Chandra Gupta II (376-415) of the Gupta empire though he spent some six years in India during the latter’s reign. The Buddhist canon Samyutta Nikata was translated into Chinese about 440 AD from a manuscript obtained by the pilgrim in Sri Lanka in 411. Fa-hsien was the earliest to refer to “pollution on approach” in regard to the untouchables.  

He traveled in India, particularly the Buddhist centres, extensively. His observations are of great importance to an understanding of the period.

Some of the important statements made by Fa-hsien about India are:

• The country is prosperous and the people are happy

• India is a peaceful state and one can travel from one place to the other throughout the empire without being harassed. There is no need for passport. The administration is mild. Capital punishment is not in vogue. Offenders are generally punished by fines. Crimes of serious nature, which are rare, are punished by amputation of one hand.  

• People are vegetarians. Only people of low castes and untouchables ate meat. Respectable citizens don’t consume liquor.

• Free hospitals are run by donations of pious subjects of the kingdom.

• Buddhism is in a state of flourish and Kashmir, Punjab ad Afghanistan are centres of Buddhism.

• Untouchables don’t form part of the society. The dwell outside the confines of villages in segregated localities. Before entering the villages they had to strike a piece of wood to warn others of their approach.

Jataka: Buddhist Collection of Folk Tales

Jataka is a collection of stories about the Buddha’s previous births as a Bodhisttva. In Hinayana form of Buddhism, Bodhisattva is a previous incarnation of a Buddha. For an orthodox Buddhist Jataka tales are the autographical accounts of Gautama Buddha and hence a part of the Buddhist religious scriptures.

One of the earliest and most significant collections of folk tales extant, the Jataka (written in the Prakrit language of Pali) comprises 547 stories. The stories are written in full in a prose commentary which has been credited to Buddhaghosa. The collection contains fables, moral tales, fairy tales, maxims and legends.

The Jataka stories are included in the Khuddaka Nikaya.

Silappadigaram: The Greatest Poetic Composition in Tamil

Silappadigaram (Silappatikaram) or “The Jewelled Anklet” is traditionally attributed to Ilangovadigal, a grandson of the great Chola king Karikalan who was the greatest among the Sangam Chola and a contemporary of the Chera king Perunjeral Adan. Legend has it that Ilangovadigal was the brother of Chera king Senguttuvan. However, there is a divergence of views among the authorities on the authorship of this great epic in Tamil. But whoever the author of Silappadigaram was, he was a great genius.



A Scene From Silappadigaram

The story of Silappadigaram runs thus: Kovalan, the hero of Silappadigaram, is a young merchant of the city of Pugar or Kavirippattinam, the famous port of the Chola kingdom during the Sangam age. He was married to a beautiful woman named Kannagi. After the good times they had for sometime, Kovalan fell in love with the courtesan and dancer Madhavi at the royal court. After living sometime with Madhavi, he returned to her wife but only with all his wealth spent on the danseuse. Since they had no money except a precious pair of anklets of Kannagi, they decided to leave Pugar for great city of Madurai to earn their lost fortunes.

On their arrival at Madurai, Kovalan went to sell one of Kannagi’s anklets to a wicked court jeweller who had misappropriated a similar anklet of the queen of the Pandyan king Nedunjeliyan. Taking advantage of the situation the jeweler informed the king of the anklet brought by Kovalan. Kovalan was executed on the King’s order. Kannagi went to the court of the king and proved her husband’s innocence. Realizing the miscarriage of justice, the king died heart broken. The queen also dies. But this did not lessen the anger of Kannagi. She decided to burn the city of Madurai and in the process tore off one her breasts and threw it at the city and the city was burnt. It was only when the patron goddess of Madurai persuaded Kannagi that she withdrew her curse. Since then Kannagi became the patron goddesses of wifely loyalty and chastity.

The Government of India has instituted an award in honour of Kannagi given to woman.

Polyandry in Ancient India

In most parts of ancient India, polyandry, the practice of one woman marrying two or more husbands simultaneously, was an impossibility for ordinary people of respectable class. According to Smriti Chandrika by Brihaspati, it is a great sin to take the wife of brother.

But that is not to say that it was unknown. The most famous example of polyandry in ancient India is found in the great epic the Mahabharata where the five Pandava brothers, sharing their wife Draupadi in common. This shows that the idea of polyandry was not an abhorrence to the common people of ancient India. Otherwise the editors of the Mahabharata would have certainly invented four sisters of Draupadi. Apart from that there are fleeting references to polyandry in the ancient literature of India.

In ancient India niyoga was well known. Niyoga was the practice of acting on behalf of a husband by his brother if the husband had died without producing male child. Niyoga has been frequently mentioned in earlier Indian lawbooks. However with the passage of time the practice of niyoga began to be frowned upon.

Marriage in Ancient India

During the Rig Vedic period, marriage was usually monogamous, and apparently indissoluble, since no reference to divorce or the remarriage of widow occur in the Rig Veda. Polygamy was however known in the Rig Vedic period. The girls were married after they had reached puberty. Child marriage was unknown and there were unmarried girls like Gosha who lived all her life with her parents. There were no marriage restrictions, still matrimonial alliances with the Dashyus was prohibited. Among the Aryans only the marriage of father and daughter, and of brother and sister were banned. There was complete freedom both to the boy and the girl in the selection of their partner but the consent of the parents was essential. 

However the scene of the Vedic period underwent a change in the time of the Smiritis. According to Manu –Smriti, the lawbook of Manu, the age of bride should be one third of that of the groom. 

From the evidence, we can come safely to the conclusion that child marriage was not at all common until the late medieval period. In fact, the ancient treatise on medicine, Sushruta Samhita, states that best kids are produced from mother over the age of sixteen. 

During the Mauryan period divorce seems to make its appearance. It has been mentioned in the Arthshashtra and Kautilya has even permitted it. The society was becoming polygamous. Ashoka had as many as four queens. The early law text-books have enumerated eight forms of marriage, viz., Brahma Marriage, Daiva Marriage, Arsha Marriage, Prajapatya Marriage, Gandharva Marriage, Asura Marriage, Rakshasa Marriage and Paishacha Marriage.

Sati: Hindu practice of Self-immolation

Sati (written Suttee by older English writers) is the traditional Hindu practice of self-immolation by a widow on her husband's funeral pyre. The word Sati means “a virtuous woman”, was applied erroneously by the British to the practice. The practice of sati was declared illegal in 1829 during the governor-generalship of Lord William Bentick.

Suttee, by James Atkinson 1831

Whether the practice of sati was prevalent in the Vedic period is in the realm of debate. The first datable reference to sati is found in the Greek accounts of Alexander invasions and the first memorial, dated 510 AD to the custom is found at Eran near Sagar in the state of Madhya Pradesh. In medieval India, the practice became very common.

The practice of sati was disapproved of by Bana, the court poet of Harsha.

The Chalukyas of Anhilwara

The Chalukyas of Anhilwara or Solankis, as they are popularly known, ruled in Gujarat and Kathiawar for nearly three centuries and a half (c 950-1300). One of the earliest kings of this line of Chalukyas was Mularaja who consolidated the Chalukya authority in Gujarat. 

The next king of importance was Bhima I (c. 1022-64), during whose reign Mahmud Ghazni, who made seventeen raids on India between 1001 and 1027, overran Gujarat and plundered the great temple of Somanath. When Mahmud appeared before the capital city Anhilwara (modern Siddhpur Patan), Bhima I took refuge in Kanthkot fort in Kutch. After the withdrawal of Mahmud, Bhima I revived the Chalukya power and entered into a coalition with Lakshmi – Karna Kalachuri against Bhoja (c1010-55), the greatest ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa. 

It was during the reign of Bhima I that the Sun Temple of Modhera was built. His spouse Udaymati is known for constructing Rani ki Vav (Queen's Stepwell'), a stepwell situated in the town of Patan in Gujarat. Rani ki Vav is a UNESCO's World Heritage Site. 

His minister, Vastupala, was responsible for constructing the famous Dilwara Jain temples at Mount Abu in the state of Rajasthan.  These temples are the products of superb craftsmanship.

Jayasimha Siddharaja was the greatest Solanki ruler who, in commemoration of his victory against the Paramaras, assumed the title of Avantinatha. He erected a number of religious edifices in his kingdom and patronised learning. He was the patron of the celebrated Jain scholar Hemachandra. He ruled from 1092 to 1142. 

Kumarapala (c. 1143-1172) of the dynasty was a big votary of Jainism. During his reign, Svetambaras gained a place of great prominence in Gujarat. It is said that during his reign, non-violence was enforced so strictly that those who killed even the flies were severely fined. During the reign of Bhima II (c.1178-1241), Muhammad Ghori made an unsuccessful invasion of Gujarat (AD 1178) and was comprehensively defeated in the Battle of Kayadara that took place in Sirohi district in Rajasthan. His slave Qutab-ud-din Aibak led two expeditions. Anhilwara was plundered and temporarily occupied by the Turkish army. In the same period, the Vaghela chief carved out an independent principality in Gujarat between Sabarmati and the Narmada. 

During the rule of the Chalukyas in Gujarat, architecture reached it zenith in Western India. The beautiful Jaina shrines at Mount Abu in Rajasthan are the case in point. Since the Solanki kingdom was prosperous thanks to the sea borne trade with the Arabs and Persians, large amount of money was spent on the construction of beautiful Hindu and Jaina temples.