Women in Ancient India

Throughout most of ancient Indian history, the role of women was more or less confined to the home. Though there are instances where women wielded power and authority, this did not imply the common lot of the women in ancient India.

A woman was under the patriarchal authority of her parents, husband and sons. Even under Buddhism which boasted of liberal rules, a nun would be treated as subordinate to her male counterpart.

The status of women in ancient India kept on changing at different stages. During the Rig Vedic Period, women were treated equal to man.  During the Vedic period women participated in the public sacrifices alongside men. Some Vedic hymns are attributed to women.   During this period, there were women rishis, and they were treated with respect and dignity.

However with the passage of time the status of women declined. 

Manu, one of the famous lawgivers of ancient India, declared that wife, like the slave, has no right to property. He dictated a woman would be dependent on her father in childhood, on her husband in youth and on her son in old age. However, some allowed a woman to own their special property (stridhana) in the form of jewellery and clothing.

In ancient Indian society a woman could find their role in religion, but could not serve the temples as priestess.

However in Vedic period the position of women was much more enhanced. Women seers are said to have composed some o the Vedic hymns. The famous discussion between Gargi and Yajnavalkya is well known. But by the beginning of the Christian era, women were declared ineligible for Vedic study. However, there are references to many references to literary works attributed to women poets and dramatists. In Tamil literature, the early poetess Avvaiyar composed works of high literary merit. Poruna-raatr-uppadai, which describes the victory of Karikala Chola in the battle at Venni near Thanjavur, has been attributed to a potter’s wife.

The earliest  known Sati stone in India is an inscription engraved in A.D. 510 on a pillar found at Eran near Sagar in Madhya Pradesh. The Eran inscription mentions the wife of Goparaja, a vassal of Bhanugupta of the Gupta empire, burning herself on her husband's pyre.  The inscription mentions that his wife followed him on the pyre after his death in the battle against the Hunas.

 The practice of sati was disapproved of by Bana, the court poet of Harsha.

Medicine in Ancient India

"The system of blood circulation was discovered by them centuries before Harvey was heard of." - P. Johnstone

The history of medicine in India is as old and as rich as its civilization. Some of the earliest practices of ancient Indian medicine have been documented by Charaka and Shushruta, the two great teachers of Indian medical science. An alumnus of the famed centre of learning Taxila (presently in the Punjab province of Pakistan), he wrote Charaka Samahita, while Shushruta- Samhita was composed by Shushruta. These two are the basic textbooks of Indian medicine.

It can be inferred from these textbooks of ancient Indian science that ancient India placed great importance on prevention rather than cure. Personal hygiene and public health were accorded their due importance. The medical texts recognized the importance of fresh air and light.

Though vegetarianism was much encouraged in ancient India, the ancient medical texts recommended the use of both meat and alcohol in moderation.

The great Mauryan ruler Ashoka is said to have established free dispensaries where Buddhist monks studied medical lore.

The ancient Indian knowledge of physiology was no so superior. The reason was the taboo on contact with corpses. They also have an obscure understanding of the functioning of the brain. For the Indian, much like many other ancient peoples, heart appeared to have performed the function of the brain.

However, ancient India has, of course, developed a good knowledge of surgery. Apart from the caesarian section and bone-setting, the Indian surgeons had mastered the plastic surgery. In fact Indian taught Rhinoplasty to the surgeons of east India company.

Ancient Indians were well familiar with pharmacy. They were familiar with drug preparation from animals, plants and minerals.

The Kailash Temple: Epitome of Indian Rock-cut Architecture

An awesome feat of engineering, the Kailash Temple or the Kailashnath Temple, dedicated to Hindu God Shiva, is the most impressive remainder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Deccan that held sway for more than two centuries. Under the Rashtrakutas the rock-cut architecture in India reached its zenith.

Carved out of the single rock (monolithic) hewn out of Charanandri hills at Ellora under the instructions Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (756-775), the Kailashnath Temple has been described in glowing terms by Percy Brown, the noted writer on Indian architecture. He says, "The temple of Kailash at Ellora is not only the most stupendous single work of art executed in India, but as an example of rock architecture it is unrivalled…. The Kailash is an illustration of one of those occasions when men's minds, hearts and heads work in unison towards the consummation of a supreme ideal. It was under such conditions of religious and cultural stability that this grand monolith representation of Shiva's paradise was produced."

The shrine of Kailash Temple is complete with shrineroom, hall, gateway, votive pillars, lesser shrines and cloisters. The carvings of Kailashnath Temple are among the finest sculptures in India. Mainly in the form of deep reliefs, these sculptures give the effect of freestanding sculpture and illustrate scenes of mythology. The grand sculpture of Ravana trying to lift Mount Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva, has been vividly portrayed.

Stone inscription with Indus signs found at Dholavira

Recently an inscription on stone, with three big Indus signs and possibly a fourth, has been discovered in the archeological site of Dholavira in the state of Gujarat. The discovery of three-metre long inscription becomes all the more significant since for the first time a Harappa script has been found engraved on a natural stone in the Indus Valley. So far the Harappa script has been found on seals made of terracotta, steatite, ceramics etc.

An artist's impression of Dholavira

The Big Bangle Theory

That wearing bangles in India is an ancient tradition can be gauged from the fact among the various objects found during the excavations of the Harappan cities bangles are also included. And the tradition continues even today. Bangles were also the prized possession of the women in the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Iran.

Kot Diji: An Important Harappan Site

The important pre-Harappan and Harappan civilization site of Kot Diji is located on the left bank of the Indus River at the foot of the Rohri Hills of Khairpur district in the Sindh province of Pakistan . 

The excavations at Kot Diji were undertaken by F. A. Khan and G.S. Ghurye of the Pakistan Department of Archaeology between 1955 and 1957.

The Harappan culture at Kot Diji had typical features- a well regulated town –plan with lanes, houses with stone foundations and mud brick walls. The roofs were covered with reed mats as discovered by plastered mud impression.

Storage jars, built on the mud floors, and large unbaked cooking brick-lined ovens were also found. A broken steatite seal, a few inscribed potsherds, beads of terracotta, semi-precious and etched carnelian and other beads, copper / bronze objects, bangles, arrowheads, metal tools and weapons (a blade axe, chisels and arrow heads), terracotta bull, bird and five figurines of the Mother Goddesses were also discovered.

The Indus pottery with original bright red surface and compact texture has the intersecting circles, papal leaf, peacocks, sun symbol, antelope, incised patters etc.

Kalidasa: India’s Foremost Classical Dramatist and Poet

Shakuntala stops to look back at Dushyanta, Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906).

Kalidasa, the greatest of India’s dramatists and poets, has been given the title of Indian Shakespeare by his first English translator, Sir William Jones, the first president of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded in 1784. His Abhijnanasakuntala (Recognition of Sakuntala) won unqualified praise from Goethe.

Not much is known of Kalidasa‘s life, but there is sufficient evidence to conclude that he lived at the court of Chandragupta II (c 376-415) of the Gupta dynasty. Chandragupta II was a great patron of the arts.

Kalidasa wrote three dramas namely Malvikagnimitra, a comedy of harem love and intrigue ending in the marriage of Shunga king Agnimitra and princess Malvika; Vikramorvasi (Urvasi won by valour), narrating the ancient story of love, separation and final union of the king Puruavas and the nymph Urvasi, and Abhijnanasakuntala. He was the author of two long poems Kumarasambhava (Birth of the War-god), Raghuvamsa (Dynasty of Raghu) and two shorter poems, Meghduta (Cloud Messenger) and the Rtusamhara (Garland of the Seasons).

The Buddhist Councils

First Buddhist Council

If tradition is to be believed, soon after the Buddha’s death the first Buddhist Council (sangiti) was held at Sattapanni cave near the Magadhan capital of Rajagriha, to compile the dhamma (religious doctrines) and the vinaya (monastic code). Rajagriha, which once served the capital of Bimbisara of Magadhan Empire, is sixty miles to the south-east of the modern Patna, the capital of Bihar. The council was participated in by five hundred monks. At the council, Upali, one of the Buddha’s chief disciples, recited the vinaya pitaka, or Rules of the Order, while another important disciple Ananada recited the sutta pitaka, the collection of the Buddha’s sermons on matters of doctrine and ethics.

Second Buddhist Council
A century later Vaishali became the venue for the second Buddhist council which was convened to settle a serious dispute over the 'ten points’. It is at Vaishali council where schism raised its head. Since either of the parties did not come to terms with each other, the council ended in a permanent schism of the Buddhist church into orthodox Sthaviravadins , or “Believers in the Teaching of the Elders” and Mahasanghikas or “Members of the Great Community”.

Third Buddhist Council
The third council was held at Patliputra (modern Patna, capital of Bihar ) under the patronage of Great Mauryan Emperor Asoka, 236 years after the death of Buddha. Presided over by the scholar monk Moggaliputra Tissa, the council was participated in by one thousand monks. The third Buddhist Council resulted in the expulsion of several heretics.

This council achieved a number of other important things. Moggaliputta Tissa, in order to keep heresies at bay and ensure the Dhamma was kept pure, wrote a book called the Kathavatthu.

Fourth Buddhist Council
The fourth Council was held during the reign of Kanishka of Kushan Dynasty in Kashmir under the leadership of elder Vasumitra and the great scholar Asvaghosha. Here at this council Savastivadin doctrines were codified in a summary, the Mahavibhasa. The convening of this council led to the division into two broad sects, namely the Mahayana (great Vehicle ) and the Hinayana (lesser Vehicle). According to Buddhist tradition, another fourth Buddhist council was also held at Tambapanni in Sri Lanka in 29 B.C. under the patronage of King Vattagamani.

The Chalukyas of Kalyani

                                                                            Western Chalukya Empire / Image Source

Karka II, the last ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga (modern Kalaburagi) district in Karnataka), was overthrown in AD 974 by Tailapa or Taila II, who started a new line of Chalukyas known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani. The dynasty produced some of the greatest rulers though the genealogy of the rulers of the Chalukyas of Kalyani is still in the realm of debate.

The kingdom established by Tailapa, with its capital at Kalyani (Karnataka) is known as later Chalukya or the Chalukyas of Kalyani (The earlier Chalukyas being the Chalukyas of Badami). There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami or Vatapi (also known as early western Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Vengi (also known as eastern Chalukyas), the Chalukyas of Kalyani (also known as western Chalukyas) and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

Tailapa’s reign lasted for twenty-three years from AD 974 to 997. His rule is marked by extensive conquests. He came into conflict with the Gangas. After defeating Panchaladeva of Ganga dynasty, he captured North Mysore. He fought a prolonged battle with the Paramaras of Malwa and eventually after inflicting a crushing defeat on the Parmara Munja, took him prisoner and the later died in captivity. His reign also saw the beginning of a long drawn phase of wars against the Cholas of Thanjavur, attacking Uttama Chola. The Chalukya-Chola struggle became a regular feature during the rule of his successors. 

Tailapa is known for patronising Kannada poet Ranna, one of three gems of Kannada literature. The 10th century work, Gadhayuddham (The Duel of Maces) is Ranna's magnum opus. 

Tailapa was succeeded by his son and successor Satyasraya, also known as Sollina or Solliga, who continued the aggressive policies of his father. Satyasraya, had to face two Chola invasions led by the mighty Rajendra Chola. The Chola armies plundered the entire Chalukyan territory, Captured Banavasi, the seat of power of the Kadambas and large parts of Raichur Doab, and sacked the Chalukyan capital of Manyakheta. Another Chola army moved towards Vengi and forced Satyasraya to withdraw his forces from Vengi.

After Satyasraya’s death in 1008, his nephew Vikramaditya V ascended the throne. During his reign, nothing of consequence took place. He was succeeded by his brother Jayasimha II in AD 1015. Jayasimha II (1015-1042) has to face the adversaries on several fronts. He had to face wrath of the Parmara Bhoja of Malwa, wanting to avenge the fate of Munja. The Chalukyan kingdom was invaded by Bhoja (1018-1055) who captured Lata (Gujarat) and parts of Konkan. But it was the Rajendra Chola who proved to be his most formidable foe. After many successive defeats of the Chalukyan forces, the Tungabhadra River became the tacit boundary between the two empires. Akkadevi, sister of Jayasimha II, is famed in the history for fighting battles and superintending sieges.

Jayasimha II was succeeded by Someshvara I (c1042-1068). During the last years of his reign when his power began to decline, he drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River.

These continuous wars dent a blow to the Chalukyas resources and resulted in the weakening of the empire. The last notable Chalukya ruler was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126) who, is famous for introducing the Chalukya –Vikram era in place of Shaka era. In 1085, his armies advanced towards Kanchi and captured some Chola territories in Andhra. He fought many battles against the Hoyasalas of Dwarasamundra, the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Kadambas of Goa, who were the feudatories of the Chalukyas. But in spite of having defeated them, he could not finally suppress their power and within three decades of his death, most of the leading Chalukyan feudatories asserted their independence.

Apart from his chivalrous exploits, Vikramaditya VI was also famous for patronizing men of letters. Kashmiri poet Bilhana, the author of the Vikaramankadevacharya, and Vijnaneshvara, the commentator of the Mitakshara commentary on the Smritis, adorned his court. He was the the hero of Vikramankadevacharita and is said to have obtained brides by svayamvaras, or “self choice’.

After the death of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyas had to face repeated rebellions of their vassals, who soon asserted their independence. By the middle of the twelfth century, the Chalukyan kingdom of Kalyani became almost a shadow of itself and the kingdom was divided into the Kaktiyas of Warrangal, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (present day Halebidu in Hassan District of Karnataka) and the Yadavas of Devagiri.

Sacred Places of Buddhism in India

India, the cradle of Buddhism, is home to many sacred shrines of Buddhism. Lumbini (in Nepal), Bodh Gaya in Bihar, Sarnath and Kusinagar in Uttar Pradesh, where the four key events of the Buddha’s life, namely birth, attainment of enlightenment, deliverance of the first sermon and death took place respectively, are looked upon with great reverence. To these are added four other places which were also intimately associated with the Buddha’s life. These are Shravasti, Sankasya, Rajagriha and Vaishali. These eight places have all along been considered as the eight holy places (ashtamahasthanas) and are well-known pilgrimage destinations.

In addition to the eight sacred shrines, some of the other important Buddhist sites of ancient India are: Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar; Junagarh and Valabhi in Gujarat; Snachi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh; Ajanta - Ellora in Maharashtra; Udayagiri, Lalitgiri and Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kanauj, Kaushambi and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh.

With the decline of Buddhism, all the Buddhist shrines fell into neglect. They bore the burnt of invaders, and were either destroyed or plundered. The shrines in western India were however lucky. Being mostly in the shape of rock-cut caves, they were covered with natural growth and became out of the bounds for the destroyers. Most of the ancient shrines unearthed by the archaeologists and explorers have since been restored and developed as religious-cum-tourist centres.