Faqir Uprising of Bengal

The Sepoy munity of 1857, also known as First War of Indian Independence, was not the first movement of various classes of people to overthrow the British rule. Anti-British sentiments emerged shortly after the annexation of the province of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa by Warren Hastings in 1772. One such revolt that was of a great significance was the Faqir Uprising of Bengal that took place in 1776-77 and had the potential of shaking the very foundation of the nascent British rule in India.

Soon after the annexation of Bengal, in 1776-77 a group of wandering Muslim religious mendicants known as faqirs, started against the British authority an agitation which came to be known as Faqir Uprising of Bengal. Manjum Shah was the pioneer of this revolt, these faqirs under his leader began to levy tax on the zamindars and peasants. This was in defiance of the British authority. After Manjum Shah’s death, Chirag Ali Shah became the leader of the group and under his leadership the uprising spread to the northern districts of Bengal. The uprising was supported by the Pathans, Rajputs and disbanded Indian soldiers.

The Hindus also actively participated in the faqirs uprising. Bhawani Pathak and Devi Chaudhurani were among the prominent Hindu leaders who lent their support to this movement. The faqirs, led by Chirah Ali Shah, gained considerable strength and attacked the English factories and succeeding in seizing their goods, cash and ammunition. The faqirs and the company’s troops entered into a number of skirmishes. The faqirs uprising was finally crushed at the beginning of the 19th century.

Mir Taqi Mir, Great Urdu Poet

The comparison of Mir Taqi Mir with Mirza Ghalib reminds me of the debate on Christopher Marlowe vs Shakespeare. As a matter of fact, Mirza Ghalib himself says that Mir Taqi Mir is really great. He wrote a couplet about this:

Reekhta kay tumhi ustaad nahi ho Ghalib
Kehte hain agle zamane me koi Mir bhi tha

You are not the only master of poetry, Ghalib
They say there used to be a Mir in the past

Known as Khuda-e-Sukhan'(God of poetry), Mir Taqi Mir was born in Agra in 1723 and died in 1810 in Lucknow. This year marked the 200th death anniversary of Mir. He moved to Delhi at the age of 11 after his father's death.

When the prestige of the Mughal Empire began to wane and chaos began to reign supreme due to the constant invasions from the foreign powers including Ahmad Shah Abdali, Mir moved to the court of Asaf-ud-Daula Nawab of Oudh in Lucknow.

In 1782 Mir came to Lucknow, where he breathed his last on September 21, 1810.

One of Mir’s ghazals, `Dikhaai diye yun ke bekhud kiya, hamen aap se bhi juda kar chale’ has been rendered to music by Khayyam, one of the leading lights of Bollywood music in the movie Bazaar. Enjoy the song.

Ashokan Inscriptions

The importance of Ashokan inscriptions is immense. This can be gauged from the fact that till the decipherment of the languages of the his inscriptions by James Prinsep, the world had been cracking their brains as to historicity of this great king, referred to as ‘Piyadassi’ in the Sri Lankan chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. 

James Prinsep, an official of the Calcutta Mint and secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, was able to read the inscriptions in 1837. In fact, the inscriptions of Asoka are the oldest surviving written documents of any historical significance. These inscriptions comprise a series of edicts engraved on rocks and pillars throughout different places in his empire which stretched from the valley of Oxus to Kaveri delta in south India. The Asokan edicts are in the nature of official pronouncement of policy, and instructions to his officers and subjects. 

The inscriptions of Ashoka are written in two scripts known as Brahmi and Kharosthi. Like the European scripts, Brahmi is written from left to right, the Kharosthi is a cursive script read from right to left. Kharosthi script has been used in the inscriptions found at Shahbazgarhi (in Mardan District of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan) and Manshera (in Pakistan).

Mahavamsa: The Great Chronicle of Sri Lanka

Written in Pali language in the fifth century AD, the Sri Lankan Chronicle Mahavamsa is mainly a history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Composed by Mahanama Thera, the Buddhist Chronicle also gives reliable information on political history of India.

Mahavamsa has also great literary merit. It contains several passages of immense beauty. The passage describing the capture of Vijitanagara, the capital of the Tamil invader Elara, by the Sinhalese national hero, King Dutthagamani (161-137 BC) with aid of his favourite elephant, Kandula. is indeed one of the jewels in the crown.

Mahavamsatika or Vamsatthapakasini, a commentary on Mahavamsa, was composed in the 10th century AD.

Images of The Buddha

Before the introduction of the Buddha’s images, wheel, an empty throne, footprints, pipal trees, stupas were the symbols used for his remembrance. Why the Buddha was symbolized in such a way even many centuries after his death is not known. One reason may be that he was so venerated that it was blasphemous to depict the Buddha. However, there is no evidence to confirm this.

Hence, there are no image of the Buddha at the Buddhist sites of Bharhut, Sanchi and Gaya that are dated between c 150 BC and the end of the 1st century AD.
The earliest images of the Buddha in human form belong to the Gandhara School. However, some experts are of the view that Mathura school produced the first images of the Buddha. Both the schools flourished under the Kushana dynasty.
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The most beautiful images of the Buddha were carved out in the Gupta School of art. Nalanda in Bihar was the richest source of the well-known smooth images of the Buddha in black salt and an extensive series of Buddhist bronzes.

Did Muhammad bin Tughluq kill Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq?

Did Muhammad bin Tughluq launch his career as a ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty by arranging the murder of his own father, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the founder of the dynasty?

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, died in 1325 AD from the collapse of a wooden pavilion which his son Jauna, better known as Muhammad bin Tughluq, had got built by the royal architect (Mir ‘Imard) Ahmad, son of Ayaz. The wooden structure was built at Afghanpur to welcome Sultan after his successful military campaign in Bengal. Afghanpur was located some six miles from Tughluqabad (located on Mehrauli Badarapur Road in Delhi), the fortress-city founded by Ghiyas-ud-din.



Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq's Tomb

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was buried in the tomb which he had built for himself at Tughlaqabad. There are two schools of thought about the Sulltan’s death. While one has accused Muhammad bin Tughlaq of patricide, other has attributed the death to divine intervention. While African traveler Ibn Batutah holds Jauna responsible for pre-planning the accident to kill the Sultan, Ziauddin Barni attributes the crash of the pavilion to lightning striking it. According to Yayiha bin Ahmad Sarhindi, author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, ‘divine preordination’ was responsible for the collapse of the structure.

However, the account of Ibn Batutah seems to be right. His informant, Shaikh Rukn-ud-din, was in the pavilion when it crashed. There is no reason to believe Batutah’s intentional denigration of Muhammad bin Tughlaq because the African traveler was well received by the latter during whose rule he came to India in 1333 AD. Later historians like Abul Fazl, Nizam –ud din Ahmad and Badauni also concur with the views of Ibn Batutah.

Barni’s account seems to be biased. This is obvious because he authored his work 'Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi' during the reign of Firuz Tughlaq who had a great regard for his predecessor Muhammad bin Tughlaq and as such Barni didn't want to displease Firuz.

U.N. adds Chhau Dance to Heritage List

A United Nations committee added Chhau dance, a traditional dance of eastern India to a list of "intangible heritages" that need preservation. Chhau dance, prevalent in parts of the states of Orissa, West Bengal and Jharkhand, has been included in the list along with two other Indian performing art forms - Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan and Mudiyettu, a ritual theatre of Kerala.

The additions were among 51 items added to The Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The list highlights elements needing protection against the increasing urbanization and globalization.

The Chhau dance, famed for its crafted masks and mock combat movements, is in need of support due to the backwardness of the area where this dance form is practised.

The Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity now comprises 213 elements.

Mattavilas-prahasana: Masterpiece of Sanskrit Literature

Mattavilasa-prahasana, one of the masterpieces of Sanskrit literature, was written by Mahendravarman I of the Pallava dynasty of south India. Mahendravarman I (571– 630CE), also known as Mahendravikramavarman, was a contemporary of Harshavardhan of Kanauj. The Pallava ruler is credited with the introduction of the cave style of architecture. He is known for assuming the significant title of Vichitrachitta, “curious minded.” 

Mattavilasa (the Sport of the Drunkards) is a one-act play, full of rollicking satire. This little farce tells the story of a drunken Shaivite (follower of Shaivism, the cult of the god Shiva) ascetic, who accuses a Buddhist monk of stealing the skull which he uses as a begging bowl. This leads to the scene of acrimonious debate, full of satirical dialogue, among ascetics of different sects and both sexes. In the end it is found that the skull was stolen by a dog.

Nataraj... Lord of the Dance

Of various forms in which Shiva is worshipped, Nataraja is one of the most important. Shiva is the Lord of Dance (Nataraja). Popularity of this aspect of Shiva in south India is due to the fact that religious dancing was very much in vogue there. In this aspect, Shiva is depicted as dancing on the high slopes of the Himalayan Mount Kailasha or in the temple of Chidambaram or Tillai, located near the seacoast in Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu and 78 km south of Pondicherry. 

The temple of Chidambaram is mystically identified with Kailasha. This Nataraj has been described as the cultural epitome of the Chola empire which was at its zenith of glory for three hundred years from about 850AD to 1150AD. 

Shiva is credited with the invention of 108 different forms of dances. Some of these dances are calm and gentle while others are fierce. Of the latter, tandava is the most famous. In tandava, Shiva, flanked by his drunken attendants (ganas) dances terribly to the accompaniment of wild rhythm which destroys the world at the end of cosmic cycle. 

The term 'Nataraj' literary means 'King of Dancers'. According to eminent historian Ananda K. Coomaraswamy in his The Dance of Shiva, Nataraj is the "clearest image of the activity of God which any art or religion can boast of…A more fluid and energetic representation of a moving figure than the dancing figure of Shiva can scarcely be found anywhere,"

Decline of the Pala Empire

After the death of 3rd Pala ruler Devapala, the Pala kingdom was on its way to decline. Till the rule of Devapala, Bengal ranked high among the important powers in the history of mediaeval India. He was succeeded by Vigrahapala I, whose short reign was devoid of any important event. After him, his son Narayanapala ascended the throne in 854 A.D. He showed little interest in military conquests because he was a peace loving and religious person.

During the rule of Narayanapala, the Pala kingdom fell prey to the invading armies of the Rashtrakutas in 860 A.D. He was thoroughly defeated. The Pala Empire also could not escape the invasion of the Pratiharas who dealt a severe blow to the body-politic of the kingdom. Bhoja I of the Pratihara kingdom and his son Mahendrapala succeeded in seizing Magadha from Narayanapala. The Paharpur Pillar Inscription attests to the conquests by the Pratihara rulers. Taking advantage of the weakening condition of the Pala kingdom, the rulers of Kamarupa and the Sailodbhaba dynasty of Orissa threw of their allegiance to the Palas and declared their independence.

However, at the end of his rule Narayanapala was able to recover North Bengal and South Bihar from the Pratiharas. After a long rule of 53 years, Narayanapala was succeeded by Rajyapala who ruled for a short period. He was succeeded by his son Gopala II who in turn was succeeded by Vigrahapala.

The rule of these Pala rulers was characterized by increase in the weakening of the Pala Empire. Added to this, the kingdom was ravaged by the armies of the Chandellas, Kalachuris and Kambojas at regular intervals.

Pala dynasty regained some of its lost glory during the rule of Mahipala I. who ruled from 995 to 1043. He is rightly called the second founder of the Pala Dynasty. After the death of Ramapala, the last important Pala king, the Pala dynasty was nearing its end. After the death of Ramapala in 1130 Kumarapala became the next Pala ruler. He was succeed by Gopala III and Madanapala. Gradually the Pala kingdom went into oblivion.

Can Harappan Script be Deciphered?

The language of the Indus Civilization, also known as Harappan Civilization in popular parlance, is still unknown. This will remain so until the Indus Civilization script is deciphered. Broadly there are two schools of thoughts as to the nature of the language of the Harappan civilization. According to one, the language belongs to the Indo-European or even Indo-Aryan family. The other school is of the opinion that the language belonged to the Dravidian family. 

Notwithstanding of the close scrutiny of some more than 2500 Harappan inscriptions, the task of decipherment remains arduous. Added to this the shortness of the inscriptions nearly all on seals or amulets tablets, renders it difficult to interpret. 

It’s is due to these challenges the associated problems have attracted a whole lot of authorities, scholars and experts to attempt their solution. What’s your take on that?

Foreign sources of Mauryan history

As a result of Alexander’s invasion of India, a number of Greek travelers came to India. They were first to communicate to the outside world what they saw of India. Famous among them are Onesicritus of Astypalaea, Aristobulus of Cassandreia and Nearchus.

Onesicritus and Nearchus ware officers in Alexander’s army during his invasion of India. Aristobulus was the Greek historian who accompanied Alexander on his campaigns.

Subsequent to these writers came the ambassadors from the Hellenistic kingdoms to the Mauryan court. Their accounts of India were based on a wider and closer observance of the country. Among them the most famous was Megasthenes, who was sent as ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus Nikator, Alexander’s general and the Greek ruler of Persia and Babylon. Other Greek ambassadors or travelers who visited India were Deimachus, Patrocles, Dionysius and Timosthees. Deimachus came to Patliputra as ambassador to the court of Bindusara, son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya.

But none of these above mentioned writers seem to have added anything of real importance to what Megasthenes had written about India. His record of Mauryan India, compiled in Indika, has not survived to us. We learn about his record of Mauryan empire from the quotations of the later Greek writers among whom Strabo, Diodorous, Pliny the Elder, Arrian, Plutarch and Justin are notable.

Apart from the Greek sources mentioned above, the travel accounts of the famous Chinese travellers Fahien and Huen-tsang, who visited India in the 4th and 7th century AD respectively are also useful for the study of the Mauryan empire. While compiling their travelogues about India both these Chinese pilgrims referred to a number of Mauryan monuments.

Nasiruddin Mahmud: Puppet Ruler of Delhi Sultanate

A man of pious disposition, Nasiruddin Mahmud (rule 1246-66) was a grandson of Iltutmish. According to some experts, he was the youngest son of Iltutmish. He succeeded Alauddin Masud Shah to the throne of Slave Dynasty at the age of sixteen. 

Nasiruddin Mahmud was ill-qualified to rule. A puppet in the hands of his courtiers, he was married to the daughter of Ghiyasuddin Balban, one of the leading Turkish nobles. In reciprocation to this Balban was appointed to the post of regent (naib-i-mamlakat) and was conferred with the title of Ulugh Khan (premier Khan) by the Sultan. Except for a brief period (1253-55) when some nobles opposed to Balban instigated Nasiruddin to exile him, Balban was the de facto ruler of the Delhi Sultanate during the Sultan’s reign. Nasiruddin Mahmud died in 1266. Since he had no male heirs, he designated Balban to be the Sultan. 

The fourteenth century historian Isami as well as African traveller Ibn Batuta clearly mention that Nasiruddin was murdered by Balban. However, Yayiha bin Ahmad Sarhindi, author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, does not accuse Balban of regicide and according to him, Nasiruddin Mahmud died a natural death.

Iltutmish: the Real Founder of Delhi Sultanate

Shamsuddin Iltutmish, born in a tribal community of Ilbari in Turkestan, was the real founder of the Slave Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, though he was technically the third ruler of the dynasty. At the time of Qutab-ud-din’s death in 1210 AD, he was the governor of Badaun. After the death of Qutub-Ud-Din Aibak (founder of Slave Dynasty), the Chihalgani (Group of Forty) put Aram Shah as the next ruler. The relation of Aram to Qutub-Ud-Din is in the realm of debate. Aram Shah turned out to be an inept ruler. Iltutmish or (Altmash) was invited by the nobles of delhi to replace Aram who was defeated in the plain of Jud near Delhi. An intelligent and wise person Iltutmish made Delhi the capital of Delhi Sultanate.

The first ten years of Iltutmish’s reign was devoted to consolidating his position which was challenged by his rivals-particularly Tajuddin Yalduz (successor of Muhammad of Ghor in Ghazni) and Nasiruddin Qubacha (the Governor of Uch and Multan). Iltutmish defeated both of them in 1216-17, and thus made his position secure.

The reign of Iltutmish saw the coming of the Mongol fury in Central Asia under the leadership of Chengiz Khan, the Mongolian ruler, who had occupied Peking in 1215 and conquered Transoxiana in 1220. Iltutmish must be credited for his diplomatic skill. He saved the nascent kingdom of Slave Dynasty from the menace of the Mongol invasion. The fear of Chengiz khan was such that Iltutmish did not embark on any military expedition till the death the death of Chengiz khan in 1227.

After the Mongol threat subsided, Iltutmish recaptured Multan and Bengal in 1227-28 and became successful in reasserting his authority in Bengal and Bihar in 1229, and captured Ranthambhor and Mandor in Rajasthan. In 1229, he received a deed of investiture from the Abassid Caliph of Baghdad, becoming the first Sultan of Delhi to secure this recognition. The event marked the formal recognition of Iltutmish's independent position as a Sultan as also of the Delhi Sultanate and as a member of the world fraternity of Islamic states. The Turkish rulers sought to secure recognition from the Caliph. The recognition from Calipah was instrumental in legalizing their rule among the orthodox and this also enhanced their prestige as Sultans.  

Iltutmish was the first Sultan of Delhi who issued regular currency and declared Delhi as the capital of his empire.

Iltutmish had a group of faithful slaves to protect him. This group which included 40 Turkish and non-Turkish nobles, was known as Chalisa  or Amir-i-Chahalgani (mentioned at the outset), or The Forty. This group was later liquidated by Balban.

Vasavadatta of Subandhu

Subandhu is one of the greatest writers of Sanskrit prose literature. There is a divergence of opinions among the experts about the exact dating of this great prose writer who is known for his ornate style. However, taking into account the different sources we can come to the conclusion that he probably flourished in the late 6th and early 7th century AD.

Subandhu is known by his only work, named after its heroine Vasavadatta. Vasavadatta tells of the vicissitudes of her love for the prince Kandarpaketu. The story of Vasavadatta, however, ends on a happy note. This masterpiece of Sanskrit prose literature is perhaps the first work in the language that has referred to Chess or similar game. Subanndhu is the master of the language.

Tripartite Struggle over Kanauj

                                                    Tripartite Struggle

Since the accession of Harshavadhana or Harsha in 606 AD, Kanyakubja (the modern Kanauj in the state of Uttar Pradesh) was to be one of the largest and most prosperous cities of North India till the coming of Muslims. Not much is known about the kingdom of Kanauj after Harsha’s death in 647 AD resulting in a great confusion due to the absence of his heirs. 

Kanyakubja came for a short period under the hands of an usurper, Arunasva who attacked Wang Xuance who had come to the court of Harsha as ambassador of the Chinese emperorTang Taizong. However, Wang Xuance, with the help of an army from Tibet and Nepal, succeeded in capturing Arunasva who was taken back to China to spend his days in attendance on the Tang Emperor. 

About AD 730 we find a famous king named Yasovarman establishing a kingdom at Kanauj. His invasion of Gauda (Bengal) formed the subject of the Prakrit poem Gaudvadha (Slaying of the king of Bengal), composed by Vakapatiraja in the eighth century AD. After Yasovarman, three kings, namely Vijrayudha, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha, ruled over Kanauj between close of the eight century till the second decade of the ninth century. Talking advantage of the weakness of these Ayudha rulers and attracted by the immense strategic and economic potentialities of the kingdom of Kanauj, the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Bhinmal (Rajasthan), the Palas of Bengal and Bihar and the Rashtrakutas of the Manyakheta (Maharashtra) fought against each other with a view to having control over the area.  

This tripartite struggle for Kanauj lingered for almost two centuries and ultimately ended in favour of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Nagabhata II who made the city the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom, which ruled for nearly two centuries. Kanyakubja was plundered by Mahmud Ghazni who made seventeen raids on India between 1001 and 1027.

Shankaracharya: Greatest Hindu Theologian

Shankaracharya is one of the giants of Hindu philosophy, a thinker who had--and who still has--a profound influence on Indian thought.

image source: sringeri.net

Shankaracharya, or Adi Shankaracharya, was born at Kaladi, presently a village in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. One of the greatest Hindu philosophers and teachers of the post Gupta period, he travelled the length and breadth of India disputing with the Buddhists.

Shankaracharya is said to have lived from 788 – 820. During his short life span, he did much to popularize devotion of Shiva among the people of India. He composed extensive commentaries on the Brahma Sutras of Badarayans and the chief Upanishads, Bhagwat Gita and founded an order of Hindu monks to carry on his work.

For Shankara all the Vedic literature was sacrosanct and unquestionably true. He succeeded in harmonizing the paradoxes in the Vedic literature. Shankara maintained that the only reality was Brahman, the impersonal world soul of the Upanishads with which the individual soul is identical. In fact his Brahman is not really different from the void or the nirvana of the Mahayana Buddhism. Hence, he is also called a crypto Buddhist by his opponents.

The doctrine of Shankaracharya is often known as advaita (‘allowing no second’ i. e. pure monism) or kevaladvaita (strict monism).

Apart from being one of the greatest minds of the world, Shankaracharya was an able organizer. He established four famous monasteries at Sringeri (in Chikmagalur district Karnataka) Dwarka (in Jamnagar district of Gujarat), Puri in Orissa and Badrinath on the snowy heights of the Himalayas in the state of Uttrakhand.

Shankaracharya died at a comparatively early age at Kedarnath in Uttarakhand. His place in Hinduism can be compared to that of Saint Thomas Aquinas in the Roman Catholic Church.

How Buddhism Came to Tibet

In ancient times Tibet was not an isolated region as it is today. It lay in the much frequented route from China and Nepal. In the seventh century AD, Buddhism was introduced to Tibet by Srong-tsan Gampo, one of the most illustrious kings of Tibet.

Gampo was married to Princesses Wen Cheng from China and another Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal. It was under the influence of his two wives that he was attracted to Buddhism. In China and Nepal Buddhism had already made its mark. Gampo is credited with introducing in Tibet Indian alphabets. This was the beginning of a new culture and civilisation in that land.

Many Buddhist from Tibet, as in the case of China, came to India. Buddhist monks from Tibet came to study at the universities of Nalanda, Vikramshila and Odantapuri. As a reciprocation, many Indian Buddhist visited Tibet. In the eighth century AD from Nalanda (a famous centre of learning in ancient Bihar) Buddhist monk Padmasambhava went to Tibet and succeeded in converting the land into Buddhism.

The Pala rulers of Bengal (Bihar was included in Bengal at that time) who were great patrons of Buddhism, contributed a lot to reform Buddhism in Tibet. Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thunderbolt) form of Buddhism was established in Tibet in the eleventh century AD as a result of missions sent from the Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila in Bihar. Vajrayana is synonymous with Tantric Buddhism. Great Buddhist monk Atish Dipankar from Bengal, who visited Tibet in the 11th century during the reign of Nayapala, is still venerated there.

Many Buddhist works have been translated into Tibetan. Tanjur and Kanjur are the two classical Tibetan translations of Buddhist sacred texts .

Ram Raja Mandir (Temple of King Ram )

Ram Raja Mandir, a palace-turned-temple, is located at Orchha, a town in Niwari district of of Madhya Pradesh. This is the only temple in the world where Lord Ram is worshipped as a king. So the name Ram Raja (king) Temple. Orcha was the seat of power of the princely state of the same name.

An interesting legend is attached to the worshipping of Ram as King. The legend has it that in 1600 AD queen of King Madhukar Shah, the third Bundela ruler of Orchha and contemporary of Mughal Emperor Akbar, brought idols of Lord Rama and Lord Ganesha from Ayodhya to the capital. The idol of Ram was supposed to be installed in the Chaturbhuj Temple. The idol was kept at the palace as the Chaturbhuj Temple was yet to be completed. Thereupon after the completion of the Chaturbhuj Temple, the idol that was to be installed in the new temple did not move. This was construed as a divine miracle and the palace was turned into a temple. This is the reason that the idol of Ram faces the palace not the temple.

Since then Lord Rama is given a ‘guard of honour’ in place of aarti. The government of Madhya Pradesh has also recognized Ram as a king and as such has placed jawans who give guard of honour to King Ram. In Orcha none is given guard of honour as Ram is the King here.

The two towers built on the corridors of the Ram Raja Mandir are the centre of attraction for the people. The tunnels underneath these towers were used by the members of the royal family to move outside.

Bindusara, Slayer of Foes

After a rule of 24 years, Chandragupta Maurya, the first Mauryan Emperor, was succeeded by his son Bindusara. According to Jain tradition, Bindusara's mother was Durdhara. The Greek historian Athenaeus calls him Amitrochates (Sanskrit Amitraghata “Slayer of Foes” or Amitrakhada “Devourer of Foes”). It is not known how he got the title of Amitrochates. 

Bindusara was the father of Asoka, the greatest ruler of India. The Jain scholar Hemachandra, the court poet of the Chalukyas of Anhilwara, and the Tibetan historian Taranatha mention that Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, was also prime minster of Bindusara. 

Bindusara maintained friendly relations with the Hellenic world that had been established in the later days of his father. According to Athenaeus, Bindusara requested the Syrian king Antiochus I “to present him sweet wine, dried figs and a philosopher”. Thereupon, the Seleucid king of Syria sent him the figs and wine and replied , “The Greek law forbids a philosopher to be exported.” Pliny states that Ptolemy Philladelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his ambassador to India. 

Bindusara had a large family. The Fifth Rock Edict issued by Ashoka states that he had many brothers and sisters. Two of these brothers are named in Divyadana as Susima and Vigatasoka, whom the Sri Lankan Chronicles name Summan and Trishya; the former was Asoka’s step brother. Asoka’s mother was named Subhadrangi or Dharma, and Trishya was his youngest brother. Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana (also named Susima) as his Viceroy at Taxila and Asoka at Ujjaini. The Divyadana tells the story of a revolt in Taxila. When it went out of control for Sumana or Susima, Bindusara deputed Asoka to restore order.

Opinions on the Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857, also known as First War of Indian Independence, shook the very foundation of the British Empire in India. Some of the famous quotes related to the Revolt: 

“The crisis came at first as a mere military mutiny, it speedily changed its character and became a national insurrection.” – G. B. Malleson 

“It is mutiny or is it a national revolt?” – Benjamin Disraeli, British Conservative leader and Prime Minister. 

"What began as a fight for religion ended as a war for independence for there is not the slightest doubt that rebels wanted to get rid of the alien government and restore the old order of which the king of Delhi was the rightful representative.” –S.N.Sen 

“On the whole, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that so-called First National War of Independence is neither First, nor National, nor a war of independence.” -R.C. Majumadar. 

“It is in fact an anachronism to describe the mutiny as the first essay towards modern independence. It was rather, in its political aspect, the last effort of the old conservative India.” – Percival Spear.

Arthashastra of Kautilya

Of all the secular literary sources on the history of the Mauryas, the single most important source is Arthasashtra, a treatise on polity, ascribed to Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta and Chankya. Kautilya was the minister of Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya who overthrew the last ruler of the oppressive Nanda Dynasty of Magadh. 

Arthashastra was discovered in 1905 by R. Sama Shashtri, the Sanskrit scholar and librarian at Oriental Research Institute (ORI) in Mysore. Oriental Research Institute (ORI) in Mysore was founded by Mysore’s Wodeyar rulers in 1891. 

Arthashastra is a comprehensive source of information on statecraft and public administration. Divided into fifteen adhikaranas (sections) and 180 prukaranas (chapters), this text on polity is written in both prose and verse in Sanskrit. There is considerable debate on the exact dating of Arthasashtra. Since there is no mention of Chandragupta or Mauryan rulers of Patliputra in the work, some authorities including Winternitz, Jolly, H.C. Raychaudhuri are of the view that Arthasashtra is a later work and as such cannot be accepted as a source material for the Mauryan period. However, at the colophon of Arthasashtra, it is recorded that the book was composed by “a person who owned the land that was under the control of Nandas kings”. Historians like Radha Kumud Mukherjee, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, Romila Thapar and Krishna Rao are of the view that it is definitely a work composed during the Mauryan period and is written by the Prime Minister or advisor to the first Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. What appears plausible that Arthasashtra was written in the Mauryan period and subsequently elaborated in the later period.

Sangha: The Buddhist Order

The Buddha has two kinds of disciples – lay worshippers (upasakas) and monks (bhikkus or shramanas). The latter were organized into the Sangha or congregation. The membership of the Sangha was open to all, male or female above twenty years of age and who were free from leprosy, consumption and other infections diseases. However, slaves, soldiers and debtors were not allowed to enter the Sangha without the permission of their superior. The admission of Prajapati Gautami, the widowed stepmother of the Buddha, to the Sangha, at the innstance of Ananda, one of chief disciples and consatant companion of the Buddha, marked the beginninng of an order of Buddhist nun. The Buddha had reservations on women's entry innto Sangha and even predicted that allowing women to become nun will make the survival of his teachings difficult. Anyone from the age of eight might become a member of Sangha. However in order to become full member of the Order, one has to be at least 20 years old. There were no caste restrictions. The sangha was governed democratically and was empowered to enforce discipline amongst its members. The life of monks and the nuns was strictly governed by laws and the ten commandments, and there was no room for personal likes or dislikes. However, the great defect of the Sangha system was the absence of a central coordinating authority. The Sangha, founded by the Buddha, still exists in its original for in Mayanmar, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Amongst the most famous Bhikkhus at the time of the Buddha were; Sariputta, who was profound scholar of the dhamma; Moggallana, who had the greatest supernatural powers; Ananda, Maha Kassapa, the president of the Buddhist Council held at Rajagriha soon after the Buddha’s death; Upali, master of Vinaya; Anuruddha, master of right Mindfulness; and Rahula, the Buddha’s son.

Military Conquests of Jahangir

Soon after ascending the Mughal throne, Jahangir, the fourth Mughal Emperor, allowed a chain with bells to be hung outside his palace to enable petitioners to bring their grievances to the notice of the emperor himself. He promulgated twelve edicts or ordinances for the general welfare and better government of the empire. Although these ordinances confirmed Jahangir’s desire to continue his father Akbar’s liberal policies, in practice they remained ineffective.

At the beginning of his reign in 1606, Jahangir has to face the rebellion of his son Khusrau in Lahore. Khusrau has the blessings of some of the powerful nobles of the empire. Khusrau’s rebellion was personally suppressed by Jahangir. Khusrau was captured, blinded, confined and subsequently killed by Khurram (name of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal Emperor, before his ascension to the Mughal Throne) in 1622.

The fifth Sikh Guru Arjan, who had given shelter to Khusrau at Taran Taran, was fined. When he refused to pay the fine, he was executed by Jahangir. This was an unwise political decision because this sowed the seeds of acrimonious relations between the Mughals and the Sikhs.

The first military campaign undertaken by Jahangir was against Rana Amar Singh, son of Rana Pratap of Mewar. The Mughal expeditions sent against Mewar in 1606 and 1608-09 proved indecisive, but in 1613-14 the campaign led by Khurram (third son of Jahangir) proved decisive and Rana Amar Singh submitted to the Mughals in 1615. Jahangir offered most liberal terms to Mewar and thus ended a long struggle between Mewar and the Mughals. The emperor installed two life-size marble statues of Rana Amar Singh and his son Karan in the garden of his palace at Agra. However, the glory and pride of Mewar was gone.

Jahangir pursued Akbar’s plan of territorial expansion in the Deccan. The first target was a half-conquered Nizam Shahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar. However, during the reign of Jahangir the situation in Ahmadnagar had undergone a sea change for the better thanks to the untiring efforts and ability of the Abyssinian Prime Minister Malik Ambar. From 1608 onwards a number of military expeditions were sent by Jahangir against Ahmadnagar but in spite of the expenditure of millions of rupees and loss of thousand of lives, the Mughal frontier in the Deccan did not advance a single mile beyond the limits achieved in 1605.

Subjugation of the Kangra Fort was another military achievement by Jahangir. The fort surrendered to the Mughal rule on November 16, 1620. Jahangir visited the fort next year and ordered the slaughter of a cow here and the construction of a mosque within the fort.

The greatest failure of Jahangir’s reign was the loss of Kandahar to Persia. Kandahar was the bone of contention between the Mughals and the Persians. Shah Abbas of Persia (1587-1629), one of the greatest rulers of his time, outwardly professing friendship towards the Mughals, captured Kandahar in June 1622. The loss of Kandahar dealt a severe blow to the Mughal prestige in Central Asia.

Contribution of Jainism to Indian culture

Ranakpur Jain Temples

When Jainism, the “religion of the Jinas (Conquerors)” came into being in the 6th century BC, the Hindu religious texts were all in Sanskrit while those of Buddhism were in Pali which is still the religious language of the Buddhists in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and South-east Asia. The Jainas however, opted for Prakrit, though at different places texts were written in local languages as well. A large number of Ashokan edicts are in Prakrit. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, himself preached in ardha Magadhi (Half Magdhi). Secondly, the Jain philosophy has certainly enriched India’s thought. The five vows ahimsa, satya, asateya, aprigraha and brahmacharya are relevant even today.

In the early centuries of the Christian Era, the Jains (like their Buddhist counterparts) constructed stupas adorned with railings, gateways with carved figures and pillars. The image of a Tirthankara (ford maker, one of the 24 teachers of Jainism) from Lohanipur (Patna) dating back to the Mauryan period is one of the earliest Jaina figures. The Hathigumpha cave of Kharvela (with its famous inscription) and the Khandagiri and Udaigiri caves of the state of Orissa contain early Jaina relics.

During the Kushana period Mathura was a great centre of Jaina art. A votive plaque (ayapatta) depicting the cross-legged naked figure of a Tirthankara is really wonderful. The practice of making Jaina images continued throughout the Gupta period and afterwards. The gigantic statues of Bahubali (called Gometashvara) at Sharvana Belgola and Karkalla, both in Karnataka are real wonders.

Located in Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu, Sittanavasal Cave is home to some of the best cave paintings of India. Sittanavasal is distorted form of Siddhanivasan meaning abode of Siddhas saints. An inscription written in Brahmi script and belonging to 3rd century BC has been found here. According to the inscription, these cave temples were constructed by Jain monks. The Paintings of tehe cave temples were made in frescoe technique.

The Jain temples were constructed at all places of pilgrimage. The Temples at Ranakpur, near Jodhpur in Rajasthan and the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu in the state of Rajasthan are the products of superb craftsmanship.

The Jain tower in the fort of Chittor in Rajasthan is another specimen of architectural engineering. Innumerable manuscripts in palm leaves were written down and some of them were painted with gold dust. These have given rise to a new school of painting known as the “Western Indian School’

The Jainism has played a very significant role in the development of language, philosophy, architecture, sculpture and painting in India. It never became a dominant religion, nor was it embraced by a large number of people, and it never crossed the frontiers of India, but its presence in Indian art and culture was always felt and admired. The same is true to this day.

Chittor Conquest of Ala-ud-din Khilji

In 1303 AD, Ala-ud-din Khilji attacked Chittor in Rajasthan. Chittor, the capital of Mewar, was controlled by Guhila Rajputs. The geographical location of Chittor kept it immune to external invasion.

Being an imperialist Ala-ud-din thought of sending an expedition to Chittor, ruled by Rana Ratan Singh at that time. However according to several Rajput sources and Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmavat, the principal reason of Ala-ud-din’s invasion of Chittor was to acquire Rata Singh’s queen Padmini who was of exquisite beauty. The story of Padmini does not seem plausible because it is not explicitly mentioned in any contemporary sources. Even the celebrated poet and writer Amir Khusrau, who accompanied Ala-ud-din during this expedition, does not mention anything about the episode.

Durig the siege of Chittor the Rajputs showed exemplary valour. Their two brave leaders, named Gora and Badal, showed utmost bravery. But the army of Chittor was no match for the organized strength of Delhi Sultanate. After a long siege of eight moths, Chittor was captured by Ala-ud-din, who renamed the city Khizrabad, after the name of his eldest son, Khizr Khan. Rajput women preferred death to dishonor and performed Jauhar (self immolation). According to Tod, “that horrible rite, the Jauhar, where the females are immolated to preserve them from pollution or captivity. The funeral pyre was lighted within the ‘great subterranean retreat’, in chambers impervious to the light of the day, and the defenders of Chittor beheld in procession the queens, their own wives and daughters, to the number of several thousands. The fair Padmini closed the throng….They were conveyed to the cavern, and the opening closed upon them, leaving them to find security from dishonor in the devouring element”.

According to Amir Khusrav, 30000 Hindus were killed followed by demolition of many temples.

Ranthambhore Expedition of Ala-ud-din Khilji

Ala-ud-din was the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate (the combined period of five dynasties from 1206 to 1526). He succeeded to the throne in 1296 by killing his uncle and father-in-law Jalal-ud-din Firuz, who founded the Khilji Dynasty in 1290 by murdering Kaiquabad, the last ruler of the Ilabari Dynasty, known more popularly as the Slave Dynasty. 

Ala-ud-din was an imperialist. With his accession begins, as Sir Wolseley Haig says, “the imperial period of the Sultanate”. During the time of Ala-ud-din, Ranthambhore was ruled by the chivalrous Rajput chief Hamir Deva. An expedition sent by the Sultan in 1299 met with only limited success. The Rajputs could not be subdued completely. So Ala-ud-din himself marched to Ranthambhore and captured it in 1301. Hamir Deva was put to death. Ranmal, the minster who betrayed his master Hamir, was also killed by Ala-ud-din’s order. 

However, according to Hammir Mahakakavya, written by the Jaina poet Nayachandra Suri, Hamir Deva cut off his head with his own sword when he realized that he had been betrayed by his two generals Ratipala and Krishnapala, and his end was near.

India Celebrates Vallabhbhai Patel’s Birthday

Today is the 135th birth anniversary of Vallabhbhai Patel was a great freedom fighter whose contribution to Indian independence is exemplary. Popularly known as Iron Man, he marked his entry into politics by participating in the Kheda Satyagraha launched in 1918 to secure exemption for the cultivators from payment of land tax for the crops that had failed. In 1922 he stared another peasant movement in Bardoli taluka of Gujarat, popularly known as the Bardoli Satyagraha. In recognition of his great success in organizing the Bardoli movement, Mahatma Gandhi called him Sardar. 

Vallabhbhai Patel actively participated in all the movements launched under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. After Independence in 1947, he became India’s deputy Prime Minister. His portfolios included Home, the Indian States and Information and Broadcasting. The crowing achievement of his political career was the integration of some 562 Princely States and domains in the India Union.

Ashoka as a Buddhist

Ashoka, the great Mauryan Emperor, became a Buddhist eight years after his coronation, that is a year after his conquest of Kalinga. According to Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamasa (Great Chronicle), Ashoka was converted to Buddhism by Nigrodha, a boy monk who was just seven years old, and afterwards he came into contact with Moggaliputa Tissa who presided over the third Buddhist Council called by Ashoka in his capital Patliputra (modern Patna, the capital of Bihar). 

After the third Buddhist Council Ashoka sent Buddhist mission to several parts of India and to Sri Lanka where he sent Mahendra his son, or in some sources his brother, and daughter Sanghamitra for the spread of Buddhism. The conversion of Sri Lanka into Buddhism is unanimously ascribed to Mahendra. 

When Ashoka embraced conversion to Buddhism the other members of his family also followed suit. According to the Buddhist sources, Ashoka’s brother Tissa, his son, daughter and queen Karuvaki also became converts to Buddhism. The famous Queen’s (Minor/pillar) edict in Allahabad refres to the sacred donations made to the Buddhist Sangha (the Buddhist order) by his second queen Karuvaki. 

Ashok’a relation with the Buddhist Sangha was that of a royal patron and in this context he tried to rigidly enforce the unity of the Buddhist Sangha. In his minor Rock Edicts he repeatedly warns that “whosoever, monk or nun, breaks up the Sangha, after being clothed in white garments shall be expelled out of the Sangha.” After his conversion to Buddhism, he went on pilgrimages to various Buddhist scared places and built several stupas and viharas.

Early Life of Ashoka

We have to rely on the traditional accounts to know the early life of Ashoka, the greatest of the Indian kings. According to Buddhist accounts his mother was Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi. As a prince he served as a Viceroy of Ujjaini and Taxila. During his Viceroyalty he fell in love with the daughter of a merchant of Bidisha, referred to as Devi or Vedisa Mahadevi, whom he married. 

Ashoka’s two other well-known queens were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra. The second queen, Karuvaki is mentioned in the Queen’s Edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad, in which her religious and charitable donations are referred to. She is described as the mother of Prince Tivara, the only son of Ashoka to be mentioned by name in edicts and inscriptions erected by the Great Mauryan Emperor throughout the kingdom. 

According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle Mahavamsa, Ashoka usurped the throne by killing 99 of his brothers. Only the youngest brother named Tishya was spared.

Early Life of Ashoka

We have to rely on the traditional accounts to know the early life of Ashoka, the greatest of the Indian kings. According to Buddhist accounts his mother was Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi. As a prince he served as a Viceroy of Ujjaini and Taxila. During his Viceroyalty he fell in love with the daughter of a merchant of Bidisha, referred to as Devi or Vedisa Mahadevi, whom he married.

Ashoka’s two other well-known queens were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra. The second queen, Karuvaki is mentioned in the Queen’s Edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad, in which her religious and charitable donations are referred to. She is described as the mother of Prince Tivara, the only son of Ashoa to be mentioned by name in inscriptions.

Cheras of the Sangam Age

Cheras were one of the three famous ruling kingdoms of the Snagam Age. The rulers of these kingdoms ruled over parts of Kerala and Tamilham. Cholas and Pandyas were the other two ruling dynasties. The Tamil anthology Padirruppattu is exclusively devoted to the Chera monarchs.  

The first famous king of the Chera dynasty was Udiyanjeral (c. AD 130). He was given the titles of Vanavaramban and Perunjoram Udiyan by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram literature. A generous ruler, he is said to have maintained a large kitchen from where he freely distributed food to the people. He was succeeded to the throne by his son Imayavaramaban Nedunjeral Adan (c. AD 155) who defeated the ruler of the Kadambas and destroyed his guardian tree. In another work, he is also credited to have captured several Yavanas, who were released only when the ruler received a heavy ransom in the form of diamonds and may utensils of fine workmanship. These Yavanas are identified with the Greek sailors. It is not known why these sailors bore the burnt of the Chera ruler. The  capital of Nedunjeral Adan was Marandai. He lost his life while fighting a war with the contemporary Chola king who also died. Their wives of both the kings performed sati. 

But the greatest of the early Chera kings was Pirakotiya Senguttuvan, also known as Red Chera, who was a contemporary of the poet Paranar, one of the most famous and long-lived poets of the Sangam Period. Paranar credits Senaguttuvan with a number of conquests. He also made a campaign to North India to get a Himalayan stone to make an idol of Goddess Kannagi (the Goddess of Chastity). According to early Tamil epic Silappadikaram, the ruler was the founder of the famous Pattini cult related to the worship of the Goddess of Chastity, which after became common in South India and Lanka.

Senguttuvan was succeeded by his half-brother Perunjeral (or Perumcheral) Adan (c.180), who was a contemporary of the great Chola monarch Karikala. We learn from the poems Puram and Aham that while fighting against the Choals in the Battle of Venni, Perunjeral Adan received a wound in the back and expiated by starving himself to death on the battlefield with his sword in hand. We learn that many eminent men gave up their lives when they came to know the Chera ruler’s demise and the reason for it. 

Kanaikkal Irumporai was another important Chera ruler who was defeated by Chola monarch Senganan in the battle of Por. The Chera king was thrown into prison where he refused to drink water which he asked and was brought to him after a deliberate delay and he fasted unto death. 

The later Chera kings were constantly at war with the Cholas. The decline of the Chera dynasty began at the beginning of the third century AD. 

The Cheras did a brisk trade with the Tamil ports. The celebrated Chera port Muziris was a great centre of Indo-Roman trade.

Last years of Akbar, the Greatest Mughal Emperor

The last days of the Mughal Emperor Akbar proved to be unhappy due to rebellion of his son Salim, who succeed him under the title of Jahangir. The death of his friend and poet Faizi in 1595 saddened Akbar. Salim was eager to ascend the throne and even entered into intrigues with Portuguese to achieve his end. He even hurt Akbar by commissioning the murder Abul Fazal (brother of Faizi), author of Akbarnama, by Vir singh Bundela. The Mughal court became divided into two factions, one favouring the succession of Salim while the other, led by Raja Man Singh, plotted to secure succession of Salim’s son Khusrav. In fact, Khusrav was also Akbar’s choice. However, before his death Akbar pardoned Salim and nominated him as his successor. Akbar died of diarrhoea on 17th October in 1605.

The Chandellas of Jejakabhukti or Bundelkhand

During the 10th and 11th century AD the territory of Jejakabhukti or modern Bundelkhand was ruled by the Rajput rulers of the Chandella dynasty under whom a great school of architecture flourished. The finest specimen of the architecture is a group of temples at Khajuraho in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The Khajuraho temples have been declared World Heritage site by UNESCO. Three most important cities in the Chandella dominions were Khajuraho (Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh), Kalinjar (Banda district in Uttar Pradesh) and Mahotsavanagar (Mahoba district in Uttar Pradesh). About these cities eminent historian Vincent Smith remarks, “The first-named town with is magnificent temples may be regarded as the religious, the second with its strong fortress as the military and the third with its palace as the civil capital.” 

                                                Khajuraho Temple / Image source

The Chandellas are believed to have been a clan of aboriginal chiefs related to the Gonds or Bhars and later graduated to the rank of Kshatriyas. The name of their kingdom Jejakabhukti was named after the one of the early Chandella rulers known as Jeja or Jejjaka. 

The Chandella were once the feudatories of the Partiharas of Kanauj. In fact, their chief Harshadeva (c 900-25) had helped Mahipala in regaining his kingdom. Yashovarman, son of Harshadeva, threw off the allegiance. However, the Chandellas became independent formally of the Partihara Empire under Dhanga, son and successor of Yashovarman. In AD 990 when Jayapala, the Shahi king of Udabhanda (present day Muzaffarabad, the capital of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan) invited important northern states to help him in repelling the aggression of Subuktigin, Dhanga along with other Hindu rulers promptly responded with men and money and shared the disaster suffered by the coalition army. 

Dhanga was succeeded by his son Ganda, who also joined the confederate army formed by Shahi king Anandapala (son of Jayapala) in A. D. 1008 to repel the invasion of Mahmud Ghazni (son-in - law of Subuktigin). Ganda was succeeded by his son Vidyadhara, who was the greatest ruler of the Chandella dynasty. He attacked and killed the Pratihara ruler Rajyapala in A. D. 1019 for having submitted to Mahmud Ghazni. However in 1023, when Mahmud Ghazni attacked Kalinjara, Vidyadhara was unable to defend Chandella dominions. After him, the power of the Chandellas declined. 

There was a revival of the fortunes under Kirtivarman who successfully resisted an invasion of the Chandella territory by a Ghazanvid army in A. D. 1090. Kirtivarman was the patron of famous poet Krishna Misra. Among later Chandella rulers, Madanavarman (c.1129-63) and Parmardi or Parmal (c1165-1203) were the most important kings. Madanavarman defeated the Parmara ruler of Dhara, the Chedi king of Tripuri and the Gahadavala king Vijayachandra. But during the reign of Parmardi, the Chandella power began to decline. He was defeated in 1182-83 by Prithviraj III, the Chauhan king of Ajmer and Dlehi. Mahoba came under the control of the Chauhan rulers. Subsequently in 1203, he suffered comprehensive defeat at the hands of Qutb-ud-din Aibak (the first Muslim ruler of India) during the latter’s invasion of the Kalinjar. Parmardi was killed and Qutb-ud-din Aibak occupied Mahoba. 

A. L. Bhasham writes, “The conservative kings of India had learnt no lessons from Mahmud’s raids. They were still incapable of serious co-operation, and their enormous armies were slow and unwieldy. At the end of the twelfth century, the three chief kings of northern India - Prithviraj of Chauhan dynasty, Jayachandra Gahadavala and Parmardi of Chandella dynasty- were in a state of tripartite war.”

Life of the Buddha

Buddha Statue-Bodhgaya

The Buddha ( the enlightened or Awakened), also known as Sakyamuni or Thathagata, was born in 563 B. C. on the Vaihsakha Purnima day in the royal grove at Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, capital of the Sakyan republic, where his father Suddhodana was at the time ruling.

At birth the Buddha stood upright, took seven strides, and spoke: “This is my last birth-henceforth there is no more birth for me.” His mother, Mahamaya, died seven days after the birth. So the child, named Siddhartha, was brought up by his stepmother Gautami. Gautama as a child led a sheltered life and was given every kind of luxury. He was married at the age of 16 to Yasodhara, his cousin and the beautiful daughter of a neighboring chieftain whom he won at a contest where he defeated all the contenders including his envious cousin Devadatta. Gautama enjoyed family life for thirteen years and had a son Rahula.

Since one of the soothsayers had prophesied that Siddhartha is destined to be a Universal teacher, his father Suddhodana made every effort to keep Siddhartha virtually a prisoner in the palace. However, Siddhartha got out by stealth. The four signs he saw outside made a deep impression on him. He is said to have seen an aged man, completely decrepit and ugly and then a sick man who was covered with boils and shivering. Thirdly he saw a corpse; being carried to the cremation ground: all of which deeply depressed him because they showed that there is nothing but sorrow and suffering in the world and death comes to all of us, Finally he saw a religious beggar, clad in a simple yellow robe, an ascetic who devoted himself to religion. This man looked to be quite composed and serene and was inwardly joyful. This sort of life appealed to him. And therefore, he left his palace at night at the age of 29, to seek mental peace in the homeless life of an ascetic. Before leaving the palace, the Buddha went to the room of his son Rahul where his wife Yasodhara was sleeping with one of his hands on the head of the child. He silently left the palace since he feared that her awakening will prove to be an obstacle to his going away. This event is known as “Great Going Forth” (Mahabhiniskramana) in the Buddhist phraseology.

For full six years Gautama sought the solution to the world’s ills. He learnt the technique of ecstatic mediation (samapatti) from Alara Kalama. During the period, he searched, scrutinized and examined in detail the prevalent schools of thought. Ultimately, one fine morning of Vaisakha Purnima at the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya under the bodhi tree (Tree of Wisdom) in Bihar.

The Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (Isipatana) near Varanasi before the five ascetics who had been earlier his colleagues. Thereafter for forty five years the Buddha went about the country, from town to town, from village to village, disseminating spiritual illumination for the benefit of the suffering of humanity. He attained the final blowing out (mahaparinirvana) at Kushinara in the Kushinagar district of Uttar Pradesh) in 483 BC at the age of 80. The last words of the Buddha were: “All composite things decay. Strive diligently!”

Razia, the Only Muslim Woman Ruler of India

Razia (AD 1236-40) was the first and last Muslim woman ruler of Delhi. After the death of her father Sultan Iltutmish (the second ruler of the Slave dynasty of Delhi Sultanate) in 1236, her half brother Rukn-ud-din Firuz ascended the throne with the help of the nobles. This was against the wishes of Iltutmish or Altamash who was aware that his sons were not fit to be the ruler. 

During the rule of Rukn-ud-din Firuz the empire plunged into disorder. Matters were made worse by her mother Shah Turkan who unveiled a reign of terror on her adversaries. Initially a concubine in the harem of Iltutmish, Shah Turkan later on went on to become queen of the Sultan. As chaos and confusion loomed large, Rukn-ud-din Firuz and his mother Shah Turkan were put to death on November 9, 1936. He ruled for only seven months.

Razia was now the natural choice of the nobles of Delhi. Razia’s rule lasted three years ad half. She gave good account of herself as a shrewd diplomat and a strategist. At the beginning of her rule, she quelled the rebellion of provincial governors led by Muhammad Junaidi, the prime minster of the empire. She became successful in restring order in the kingdom. This was not an easy task given the conservative nature of the Muslim society in medieval times.

Razia discarded veil, began to don male attire, and rode out in public on the back of an elephant. This was not liked by the orthodox section of the Muslim populace. Another serious complaint against her that she showed undue favour to Jallaluddin Yakut, an Abyssinian by promoting him to the post of Master of Stables.

Soon discontent began to emerge among the governors of the Kingdom. Kabir khan, the governor of Lahore, was defeated by Razia. However she suffered defeat at the hands of the governor of Bhatinda, Altunia who later married her after her defeat. While she was away in Bhatinda, the nobles at Delhi proclaimed Bahram Shah, another son of Iltutmish, Sultan of Delhi. Razia was defeated in 1240 and was killed.

The contemporary historian Minhaj-us-Siraj describes Razia as “a great sovereign endowed with all the admirable qualities and qualifications necessary for kings."

Mariam: Akbar’s First Rajput Wife

Mariam uz-Zamani was the wife of Akbar and mother of the fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Akbar, the greatest of the Mughals, understood it very well that in order to rule such a large country like India, it was essential to have the support the majority of the population. Consequently he entered into matrimonial alliance with Rajputs who were the formidable adversaries of the Mughals.
Tomb of Mariyam

Before her marriage to Akbar, Mariam uz-Zamani, who was Akbar’s first Rajput wife, was known as Rajkumari Hira Kunwari. She was the eldest daughter of Kachwaha Rajput, Raja Bharmal of Amber.

The Tomb of Mariam, built in red sand stone in 1611, is located at Sikandra, near Agra. It is one km away from Akbar’s tomb.

Taj Mahal: One solitary tear on the cheek of time.

Avantivarman: Kashmir's Development Man

In the history of Kashmir, the Utpala dynasty holds a special place. The founder of the Utpala dynasty was Avantivarman who ruled from AD 855 to 883. He was more interested in internal administration than military conquests. New towns and irrigation works were constructed. One of these towns was Suyyapura (modern Sopar), called after his minister and engineer Suyya who gave a further impetus to the agriculture of Kashmir by draining marshes and protecting the fields against the deluge of avalanches. It is said of Suyya that he “made the streams of Indus and Jhelum flow according to his will, like a snake charmer his snakes.”

Avantivarman founded a new city Avantipur (Bantipur). A patron of learning , Avantivarman, in his court, has two poets, Ratnakara and Anandavardhan. In his time, according to the Kashmiri poet Kalhana, author of Rajatarangini (“rivers of kings”), rice was sold for 36 dinaras per khari, as against 2000 dinaras earlier, showing the revival of the country’s prosperity,

Descent of the Ganges: Masterpiece of the Pallava Architecture

Since ancient times rivers have been held scared by the Hindus. Ganga is the most sacred river of India. Sacred because according to Hindu mythology, Ganga sprang from the foot of Vishnu, flowed over the sky in the form of the milky way (Mandakini) and then fell to earth from the matted locks of Shiva. 

Himalayas is the source of Ganga. It is at Hardwar in the sate of Uttarakhand that this holy river debouches on the plain, known as the Gangetic plain. Ganga joins the Bay of Bengal at Ganga Sagar in West Bengal where it forms a large delta. 

Ganga is mentioned only once in a late hymn of Rigveda, the earliest of the Vedas. It seems that during the Rigvedic period, the Aryans had not expanded beyond Yamuna. 

The relief of "The Descent of the Ganges", also known as Arjuna's Penance, in the rock-cut temples of Mamallapuram (Tami Nadu), now known as Mahabalipuram, is the most striking of the sculptures for which the Pallavas are known all over the world. 

Covering a rock face of over90 feet long and 40 feet high, Ganga is watched on either side by gods, demigods, ascetics and elephants as she descends from the head of Shiva. The sinuous snake spirits (nagas) of Shiva are shown swimming in the waters of the Ganga. The sense of humour of the artists of this relief is representative by the carving of a cat standing on one leg and performing penance in order to lure the mice to doom.

Pritilata Waddedar: Brave Woman from Bengal

Pritilata Waddedar (1911-32) was a woman revolutionary from Bengal. An active member of the Jugantar and the Chittagong Republican Army, formed by Surya Sen, also known as “Masterda”. She led a group of revolutionaries and attacked a European club at Pahartali on September 24, 1932 in which a number of European were killed or wounded. After successfully raiding the club, she swallowed poison and committed suicide with a written statement in her pocket, which was a clarion call to the womanhood of India to rise up in arms against the foreign oppressions and to stand by the side of their brothers fighting for freedom.

Pritilata Waddedar

Ashutosh Gowariker's period film "Khele Hum Jee Jaan Se" is based on the Chittagong Uprising. The film is based on based on the book Do And Die by Manini Chatterjee, a veteran journalist. Role of Preetilata Waddedar is played by Vishakha Singh. Abhishek Bachchan plays the role of Surya Sen, that of other woman revolutionary Kalpana Dutt is being played by Deepika Padukone.