Indian History

Q. 1. Who among the following was the founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty ? (A) Dantidurga (B) Krishna I (C) Krishna II (D) Amoghavarsha Q. 2. Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora was built by  (A) Krishna I  (B) Krishna II (C) Mahendravarman I (D) Vishnuvardhana II Q. 3.  Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga (modern Kalaburagi) district in Karnataka) was the capital of the Rasstrakuta dynasty. Which Rashtrakuta   ruler transferred regnal capital from Mayurkhandi (in the Bidar district of Karnataka) to Manyakheta. (A)  Govinda II   (B)   Indra III (C)  Amoghavarsha I (r. 814 – 878 CE) (D)  Amoghavarsha II (r. 929–930 CE)  Q. 4. Which of the following languages was the mother tongue of Rashtrakutas? (A) Tamil (B) Telgu (C) Malayalam  (D) Kannad Q. 5. At the court of which Rashtraluta ruler did Halayudha , author of ancient Sanskrit text Kavirahasya, reside? (A) Govinda II (B) Indra III (C) Amoghavarsha (D) Krishna III Answers Q. 1. - A...

 Q.1. - Which of the following was the much talked about river in the Rig Veda? (A) Sindhu (B) Ganga (C) Yamuna (D) Godavari Q.2. - The early Vedic god Indra was the god of  (A) Fire  (B) Wind (C) Rain and Thunder (D) None of the above Q.3. - Gayatri Mantra has been taken from which Veda? (A) Samveda (B) Rigveda (C) Atharva Veda (D) Yajur Veda Q.4. - Mundaka Upanishad and Prashna Upanishad were part of which Veda? (A) Yajurveda (B) Samveda (C) Atharva Veda (D) Rig Veda Q.5. - The term Gotra was first used  in_?  (A) Rig Veda (B) Sam Veda (C) Yajur Veda (D) Atharva Veda Answer  Q.1.- A  Sindhu river or Indus River has been mentioned in the Rig Veda. Q.2.- C Indra is one of the main gods of the Rigveda. He was known as the protector of cows and priests in the Vedic religion. Indra brought rain as god of the thunderbolt.  Q.3.- B The Gayatri Mantra first appeared in the Rig Veda Q.4.- C Atharva Veda comprises three fundamental Upanishads – Mundaka Up...

 Q.1. Who was the founder of the Kushana dynsty? [A] Kujula Kadphises [B] Kanishka [C] Vasudeva [D] Vāsishka Q.2. During the reign of which Kushana ruler, the Fourth Buddhist Council was held? [A] Kanishka I [B] Huvishka [C] Vasudeva I [D] Vāsishka Q.3. Who among the following patronised Buddhist scholars Vasumitra and Asvaghosha? [A] Ashoka [B] Kanishka I  [C] Chandragupta I [D] Harshavardhan Q.4. Who among the following was not ruler of the Kushana dynasty? [A] Sadashkana  [B] Huvishka [C] Nahapana [D] Vāsishk Q.5. Which of the following cities emerged as the second capital of the Kushanas? [A] Mathura [B] Kannauj [C] Purushpur [D] Patliputra Answers Q.1 [A]   Kujula Kadphises Q.2 [A]  The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kundalvana, Kashmir in 72 AD during the reign of Kushan king Kanishka. It was held under the Presidentship of Vasumitra to compose commentaries on the Tripitika. Here at this council Savastivadin doctrines were codified in a s...

Jivaka Cintamani (also known as Civaka Cintamani) is a Tamil poem written by a Jain ascetic Tiruttakrdeva in the 10th century. This Jain epic is considered one of the five classic Tamil epics. The poem means “fabulous gem” and is also known as Mana Nool (Book of Marriages). According to the experts, Jivaka Cintamani served as a poetic model for Kamban's Ramayana, the first Tamil Ramayana.

World map by Cosmas Indicopleustes /  Image Credit: upload.wikimedia.org Cosmas Indicopleustes (literally: "who sailed to India") was a 6th-century merchant and geographer who sailed to India and traded as far as Sri Lanka. His work Topographia Christiana or Christian Topography provides an invaluable description of the India and Sri Lanka in the sixth century. This geographer from Alexandria in Egypt had visited the Kingdom of AxumOffsite Link in modern Ethiopia and Eritrea, India and Sri Lanka.  The author  Topographia Christiana  provides a description of India and Sri LankaOffsite Link during of the 6th century. According to Cosmas Indikopliustes, the world was flat as opposed to Ptolemy and pre-Christian geographer who believed that the earth is spherical.    

Grand Anicut / Image Credit Cholas were one of the three major ruling dynasties of the Tamil Country during the Sangam period  (between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D.). They ruled over an area known as Tondaimandalam or Cholamandalam. The most celebrated ruler of the Sangam Cholas was Karikalan who made a grand anicut at Kaveri and laid the foundation of the capital of Kaveripattinam, also known as Puhar. Kaveripattinam, now a non-descript fishing village silted up by the river mud, had an artificial harbour which was built by prisoners of war who were obtained by him following his successful raid on Sri Lanka. Before Kaveripattinam, Uraiyur was the capital of the Chola kingdom.   Karikalan' father was the son of Ilanjetcenni who was a valiant and brave ruler. Karikalan, which means man with a charred leg, was so named because his leg was caught in flames when the prison, in which he was incarcerated after being kidnapped by his enemies, was set on fire. He, ho...

46km from Bhopal in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh is situated the world famous Buddhist site of Sanchi the remains of which are among the finest relics of early Buddhism dating from 3nd century BC . The Great stupa at Sanchi is hailed as the crowning achievement of early north Indian sculpture. Today the Great Sanchi Stupa survives to be awe-inspiring spectacles for the pilgrims and tourists who throng to them. It is a massive hemisphere of about 120 feet in diameter.  Towards the end of the 1st century BC four glorious gateways ( torana ) were added at the four cardinal points. The stupa was enlarged to twice its original size in the 2nd century AD. Lesser stupas and monastic buildings surround the great stupa.  The Sanchi gateways, carved with great skill, are more remarkable for their carved ornamentation than their architecture. Carved with a several figures and reliefs, each gateway consists of two square columns, above which are three architraves supported by mass...

Samprati A grandson of 3rd Mauryan Emperor Ashoka ,  Samprati (r. 224 – 215 BCE) was a Mauryan Emperor. He was the son of Kunala who was blind by birth.  After Asoka's death in 232 BC, the territory of Mauryan empire was divided into the eastern and western parts. Sampriti and Dasaratha succeeded Asoka in the western and eastern parts respectively. Samprati had embraced Jainism. He was converted to the religion by Jain monk Suhastin. His contribution to Jainism is similar to that of Asoka to Buddhism. After a rule of nine years Samprati was followed by his son Salisuka who ruled for 13 years. 

Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman / Image Credit The Junagadh rock inscription of the Saka ruler Rudradaman is a eulogy inscribed on a rock located near Girnar hill near Junagadh in Gujarat. Composed in about 150 AD, the inscription,  which is the earliest inscription written in Sanskrit prose, refers to his reconstruction of a great dam or Sudarshan reservoir for irrigation which was excavated by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Chandragupta Maurya in the provinces of Anarta and Saurashtra (Gujarat).  Written in the Brahmi script , this inscription is engraved on a rock which contains one of the fourteen Asokan Major Rock edicts and another inscription of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta. The inscription was first translated in 1837 by scholar and Orientalist James Prinsep, an official of the Calcutta Mint and secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.  

                                         Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE /  Wikimedia Commons Ruling from 324 to 297 BCE , Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the first and one of the greatest empires that appeared in Indian subcontinent.  The scarcity of sources dealing with the military conquests of Chandragupta Maurya makes it difficult for us to ascertain whether he first overthrew Mahapadma Nanda , the unpopular last Nanda ruler, or drove out the Greeks from the North-West part of India. From the inferences from the Jaina and Greek sources, it seems that liberation of Punjab was the first military activity by Chandragupta Maurya who felt emboldened by the confusion in the Greek empire that followed Macedonian ruler Alexander ’s sudden death in 323 BC in Babylon. Greek writer Justin writes about the prevailing condition of the time, “India, after the de...

A native of sanxi (Shansi), Fa-hsien , also known as Faxian , was a Chinese monk who came to India on a pilgrimage tour during the reign of Chandra Gupta II ((reigned c 376-415). His motive for coming to India was to acquire authentic copies of the Buddhist scriptures and to visit the places associated with the Buddha. After his return to China he translated into Chinese the large number of Sanskrit Buddhist texts he had brought from India. He had recorded his observations in a travelogue titled Fo-Kwo-Ki (Travels of Fa-Hien). Being of religious nature, he gives information about temples and monasteries and the state of Buddhism in India at that time. He was so engrossed in the religious pursuits that he even doesn’t mention the name of Chandra Gupta II (376-415) of the Gupta empire though he spent some six years in India during the latter’s reign. The Buddhist canon Samyutta Nikata was translated into Chinese about 440 AD from a manuscript obtained by the pilgrim in Sri Lanka in 411....

Lord Mahavira Vardhamana, known to his followers as Mahavira, was the last of the 24 Tirthankaras (Ford-makers),  saviors and spiritual teachers of the dharma, in Jainism.  He is regarded as the founder of Jainism.  A contemporary of The Buddha, Mahavira was born in village Kundandagrama near Vaishali in Bihar in a kshatriya (the warrior class) family about 599 BC. His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Jnatrikas clan and his mother Trishala was sister of Chetaka, the Licchavis king of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, who was married to Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka. Mahavira was married to Yashoda and had a daughter whose husband, Jamali, became the first disciple of Mahavira. Though Mahavira was educated in all branches of knowledge he shied away from materialistic life. At the age of 30, when his parents were dead, he renounced his family, became an ascetic, and proceeded in search of truth. For over twelve years, he went ...

Throughout most of ancient Indian history, the role of women was more or less confined to the home. Though there are instances where women wielded power and authority, this did not imply the common lot of the women in ancient India. A woman was under the patriarchal authority of her parents, husband and sons. Even under Buddhism which boasted of liberal rules, a nun would be treated as subordinate to her male counterpart. The status of women in ancient India kept on changing at different stages. During the Rig Vedic Period, women were treated equal to man.   During the Vedic period women participated in the public sacrifices alongside men. Some Vedic hymns are attributed to women.  During this period, there were women rishis, and they were treated  with respect and dignity . However with the passage of time the status of women declined.  Manu , one of the famous lawgivers of ancient India, declared that wife, like the slave, has no right to property. He dictated...

After the Buddha's death, Buddhist councils were convened over the period of time to recite approved texts of scriptures and to settle  doctrinal and disciplinary  disputes.  First Buddhist Council Soon after the Buddha’s death in the fifth century BC the first Buddhist Council ( sangiti ) was held at  Sattapanni  cave near the Magadhan capital of Rajagriha (modern Rajgir, Bihar state of India). It was convened to compile the  dhamma  (religious doctrines) and the  vinaya  (monastic code).  Rajagriha, which once served the capital of Bimbisara of Magadhan Empire, is sixty miles to the south-east of the modern Patna, the capital of Bihar.  This council was held under the patronage of the king Ajatashatru with the monk Mahakasyapa, who  presided over the assembly. The council was participated in by five hundred monks. At the council,  Upali , one of the Buddha’s chief disciples, recited the  vinaya pitaka , or Rules of...

Brahma Jinalaya Temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka / Image Credit Karka II , the last ruler of the   Rashtrakuta   dynasty of   Manyakheta   (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga (modern Kalaburagi) district in Karnataka), was overthrown in AD 974 by   Tailapa or Taila II , who started a new line of Chalukyas known as the Chalukyas of Kalyani   (modern day Basavakalyan in the present Bidar district of Karnataka) .  Chalukyas of Kalyani, also known as Western Chalukya dynasty, produced some of the greatest rulers though the genealogy of the rulers of the dynasty is still in the realm of debate. The kingdom established by Tailapa is known as Later Chalukya or the Chalukyas of Kalyani (The earlier Chalukyas being the   Chalukyas of Badami ). There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami or Vatapi (also known as early western Chalukyas), the   Chalukyas of Vengi   (also known as eastern Chalukyas), t...

Lad Khan Temple  Aihole / Image Credit A small riverbank village in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka,  Aihole was in ancient times a centre of kingdom of early Chalukyas of Vatapi (now called Badami) who were prolific temple builders.  Aihole is a town of temples and contains more than hundred structures. Dating back to the 5th century AD.  Lad Khan is the  oldest temple in  Aihole. Dedicated to Shiva, the temple is  a specimen of of the Malaprabha style of architecture.  Lad Khan Temple owns its name to  a commander of the Bijapur Sultanate  who once stayed there. Nandi facing the shivalinga  / Image Credit  

Mallikarjuna_Temple,_Pattadakal / Image Credit Mallikarjuna Temple or Trilokeshwara Temple  is a temple in Pattadakal built by the Badami Chalukyas in the eighth century. Built by Trilokadevi, wife of the Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya II (reigned 733 - 744 AD),   the temple was built immediately after the Virupaksha Temple, which was built by Lokamahadevi, another wife of the Chalukya ruler., in 745 AD.  Located on the Malaprabha river in Karnataka, Pattadakal is believed to be the site where Chalukyan rulers were crowned kings between the sixth and eighth centuries. Trilokeshwara Temple bears a resemblance to Virupaksha Temple.  The temple has beautiful pillars and columns narrating scenes from mythology, legends, puranas and Ramayana and Mahabharata. There is a Nandi pavilion  in the temple.  Trilokeshwara Temple is part of the monuments in  Pattadakal and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.  

Virupaksha Temple / Image Credit Virupaksha is the largest and grandest of all temples built by the Badami Chalukyas in Pattadakal between the 7th AD and 9th AD centuries. Located on the Malaprabha river in Karnataka,  Pattadakal is believed to be the site where Chalukyan rulers were crowned kings.  Also known as the Lokeshwara temple, the Virupaksha temple was commissioned in 745 AD by the Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya's consort Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas of Kanchi,  The architect of the temple was Sri Gundan Anivaritachari who was given the title of Tenkanadiseyasutradhari (the architect of the South).  Dedicated to Shiva, the Virupaksha temple is influenced by the architecture of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. The concept and design of the Virupaksha temple later served as a model for the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I (757 -783 A.D.) to carve out the great Kailasha Temple at Ellora. Nandi Facing The Shiva Lingman ...

Six Heretical Teachers / Image Credit  A contemporary of the Buddha in the 6th century BC, Ajita Kesakambalin (“Ajita of the Hair-blanket)  is one of the Six Heretical Teachers who were opposed to his teachings. The other five were Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Pakudha Kaccāyana, Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta).  According to Buddhism, Ajita Kesakambalin was a heretic whose beliefs were challenged and refuted by the Buddha who is said to have performed feats of levitation and other miracles (known as the Twin Miracle) due to challenge from these rivals.  Ajita Kesakambalin is the earliest known proponent of complete materialism. He taught that pleasure is the chief end of life. According to him, “When the body dies both fool and wise alike are cut-off and perish. They don’t survive after death.” According to Buddhist sources, Ajita founded a sect of monks. He is depicted as an ascetic dressed in human hair. Hence the name 'Ajita Kesakambalin' It is n...

View of the Dhungeswara_Hills / Image Credit After renouncing his home life the event known as “Great Going Forth” ( Mahabhiniskramana ) in the Buddhist phraseology, Siddhartha Gautama began to lead a life of mendicancy, asceticism, and meditation.  Approach Road To Dhungeswara Hills / Image Credit Siddhartha learnt the technique of ecstatic mediation (samapatti) from a sage named Alara Kalama (first teacher of Gautama Buddha).  During the period he practised most rigorous self-mortification. For six years, he tortured himself and his penances were so severe until he was nothing but a walking skeleton.  One day, Siddhartha realized the futility of fasts and penances and began to beg food. Sujata, the daughter of a farmer, brought him a large bowl of rice boiled in milk.  After forty nine days, he became Enlightened- a Buddha at Bodh Gaya.   12 Km from Bodh Gaya in the district of Gaya is located Pragbodhi hill where the Buddha had penanced in a cave for six...