Indian History

Bhatti, the author of Ravanavadha, was the court poet of Dharasena IV (AD 645-650), the Maitraka ruler of Valabhi. Ravanavadha, (the Death of Rāvaṇa), more popularly known as Bhattikavya (Bhatti’s Poems), is a poem on the story of Rama.     Bhattikavya is sometimes included in the list of mahakavya.

Also called Trikanda, Amarakosha is a Sanskrit lexicon compiled in ancient India by Amarasimha who was one of the famous Navaratnas, or Nine Gems who adorned the court of the Gupta ruler Vikramaditya Chandragupta II (c. 376-415).  Most of Amarakosha’s works have been lost to us.   

Illuminated  mausoleum of Rahim in Delhi / Image Credit: Parveen Sharma   Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, popularly known as Rahim, was a medieval Hindi poet, scholar of Sanskrit and Persian and powerful minister and military commander during Mughal emperor Akbar’s reign.  According to tradition he was one of Akbar’s ‘Navratnas (“Nine Jewels”). The Navratnas were nine individuals of extraordinary ability gracing the court of Akbar.                                                                                            Rahim's Tomb  Rahim was born in 1556 to Bairam Khan, the preceptor to Mughal emperor Akbar. The father-son duo were both titled Khan-i-Khanan. Rahim was four years old when h...

                                                                 Malik Maqbool tomb Delhi/ Image source Jahan Khan or Malik Maqbul whose mausoleum in the Nizamuddin Basti in Delhi is the earliest octagonal tomb in India was the Wazir (Prime Minister) of the Delhi Sultanate under Firuz Shah Tughluq ((r. 1351–1388), the third ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.   Also known as Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul Tilangani, Malik Maqbul was originally a Brahmin from Telangana in the service of the Kakatiya kingdom in eastern Deccan. He converted to Islam when the kingdom under Prataprudra was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq who had sent his son Ulugh Khan (later Muhammad bin Tughlaq) to bring the Hindu kingdom under the Muslim rule. Malik Maqbul was known as Ganna...

Tomb of Hazrat Data Ganj Baksh / Image source Also known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Power), Khwaja Ali Hujjwiri lived in 11th century AD and is considered to be the earliest Sufi Saint of repute who made India his home.  Sufism is a form of Islamic mysticism.  Born in Ghazni in Afghanistan, he died in Lahore and his tomb, known popularly as Data Darbar, is an important place of pilgrimage in the city. Also called Shaykh al-Hujwiri, Khwaja Ali Hujjwiri was a scholar and is known for compiling Kashf-ul-Mahjoob or Kashf al-Mahjub (Revelation of Mystery), a Persian treatise on Sufism, which was translated into English by British Orientalist and scholar Reynold Alleyne Nicholson. The work gives the biographies of Sufis from Prophet Muhammad's days to his own time.  His shrine in Lahore was visited by famous Chisti saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti who paid his homage to him by hailing him as 'Ganj Baksh' , the perfect pir. 

                                                                             Harshavardhan/  Image Source   A contemporary of Chalukya King Pulakeshin II who defeated him on the banks of Narmada in 618 AD, Harsha was an Indian emperor who brought a semblance of stability to the politics of North India amidst the chaos that characterized the period following the decline of the Gupta empire.  The reign of Harsha, also known as Harshavardhana, is well documented compared to other ancient Indian rulers. His court-poet was the famous Brahmin author Banabhatta whose magnum opus is Harshacharita (The Deeds of Harsha). Chinese scholar and traveler Huen Tsang came to his court leaving a valuable description of India.  Harsha who ascended the thr...

                                                                      Achyuta Raya Temple in Hampi / Image credit Achyuta Raya was a Vijayanagar ruler who succeeded to the throne in 1529 following the death of his half-brother Krishna Deva Raya, the greatest Vijayanagar emperor. If Portuguese chronicler Fernao Nuniz, who spent three years in Vijayanagar empire during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya from 1535 to 1537, is to be believed, the Vijayanagar ruler was given to cruelty and tyranny. However, Achyuta Raya was not such a dishonest and weak ruler as maligned by Nuniz.  Achyuta Deva Raya ruled for 13 years and internal revolts ruled the roost during the period. However, he managed to keep the vast Vijayanagar dominions intact. Achyuta Raya is more known for his work in the...

                                                                 Gate entry to Adilabad Fort Situated southeast of the massive Tughlaqabad Fort, on the opposite side of the Badarpur -Mehrauli road, the relatively unknown Adilabad fort is referred to by historians as the fourth fort of Delhi, the others being Red Fort, Old Fort and Tughlaqabad Fort. Adilabad fort has for long been in the shadows of Tughlaqabad Fort which was built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq , the founder of the Tughluq dynasty, the third of the five dynasties, the combination of which went on to be called the Delhi Sultanate. Adilabad fort, on its part, was built by his son Juna Khan, better known as Muhammad bin Tughluq , who succeeded his father in 1325. 

Shah Jahan III / Image credit Born Muhi ul-Millat, Shah Jahan III was a Mughal Emperor for a brief period from December 1759 to October 1760. His father was Muhi us-Sunnat who was the son of Aurangzeb’s youngest son, Muhammad Kam Bakhsh.  Muhi ul-Millat was raised to the throne as Shah Jahan III by the Mughal Vizier Ghaziuddin Khan Feroz Jung III, popularly known as Imad-ul-Mulk on whose orders the previous Mughal emperor Alamgir II was put to death on 29th November 1759. Shah Jahan III was later deposed by the Marathas who now placed Shah Alam II on the throne. 

The power of the Chola dynasty reached its pinnacle during the reigns of Rajendra Chola (1014- 1042) and his father Rajaraja I (985-1014). Rajendra Chola was the worthy son and successor of his father. Though he succeeded to the Chola throne in 1014, his regal years are counted from 1012 AD when he was declared heir-apparent. By his military prowess and administrative skill, Rajendra Chola raised the Chola power to the zenith of glory. Probably in 1017 AD, he conquered the whole of Sri Lanka, the northern part of which was already annexed to the Chola empire during the reign of his father Rajaraja I. In the next year (1018 AD) Rajendra Chola forced the rulers of Kerala and the Pandyan country to accept the suzerainty of the Cholas. He defeated the Western Chalukya power under Jayasimha II Jagadekamalla (c. 1016-42). Rajendra also came in conflict with the Pala ruler of Bengal, Mahipala I, and his armies spread their victorious wings as far as the Ganges. To commemorate this daring vict...

Map showing the greatest extent of the Chola empire c. 1030 under Rajendra Chola I / Image Source Cholas, one of the three major ruling dynasties of the Tamil Country during the Sangam period (between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D.), were reduced to the dustbin of obscurity by the Pallavas, only to rise once again in the mid 9th century AD and rule for some 300 years the Coromandel Coast and much of south India and as far as Sri Lanka and the Maldive Islands. During this period the Cholas came to be called Imperial Cholas because they managed to bring large swath of territory under their influence.  The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya who is credited to have restored the lost glory of ancient Cholas sometime before in 850 AD. A feudatory of the Pallava rulers, Vijayalaya captured Thanjavur from the Mutharaiyar chieftains who held sway in these parts of Tamil Nadu until the rise of the Chola power in the mid-9th century AD. He made Thanjavur his capital ...

image source Indasala Cave or Indrasala Cave in Bihar is identified with a cave set at the base of a cliff of sheer rocks in the Giriyek Mountain in the midst of a serene and tranquil landscape.  Located to the east of Rajgir,  Indasala Cave is a famed Buddhist site  where the Buddha is said to have delivered one of his most thought provoking sermons recorded in the Sakkapanha Sutta.  According to the Buddhist accounts, Sakka, an inquisitive person who was searching answers for his questions, came to the cave where the Buddha stayed for some time and asked his forty-two questions which were fittingly answered by the Buddha.   It was during his stay at Indasala Cave that the Buddha uttered verses 206, 207 and 208 of the beautiful Pali text, Dhammapada (Verses on the Virtues). Added to this, the Indasala Cave also played host to Buddhasrijnana, the famous commentator on the Guhyasamaja Tantra.  Another prime attraction of the area is the Hansa Stupa, loc...

                                                       Pilak Buddhist Stupa / Image Source Pilak in South Tripura is an archeological site of immense significance to Buddhism which flourished here from the 8th to the 12th century AD. The excavations at the site have unearthed a fair amount of ancient Buddhist sculptures and artefacts including a stupa, statues of Buddha in meditation and Avalokiteśvara. Located close to the Bangladesh border, Pilak is an extension of Buddhist sites of Bangladesh and Burma and formed part of the Samatat kingdom in ancient Bengal. The area has been referred to the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited this area during 637-39 AD.  Today Pilak attracts thousands of Buddhists from across the world and is fast emerging an important Buddhist pilgrimage site in India. You can also find a colo...

                                           Buddhist Monastery ruins, Poompuhar / Image Credit 40 km from Chidambram town in the state of Tamil Nadu, Kaveripattinam, now a fishing village in the Mayiladuthurai district, was a great city and the chief port of the Chola empire in ancient India. It had an artificial harbour which was built by soldiers captured by the great Chola ruler Karikala on a raid on Sri Lanka. The greatness of Kaveripattinam finds mention in the great ancient Tamil epics of Silappathikaram (Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai. Manimekalai was written by the poet Seethalai Saathanar, who was a Buddhist. The heroine of Manimekalai, Manimegalai, is the daughter of Kovalan, the son of a wealthy merchant of the city of Kaveripattinam. Her mother was Madavi, a dancer who became a Buddhist nun on hearing of Kovalan’s death. Manimegalai also ...

Coins of  Alauddin Masud Shah / Image Source After getting the reigning Mamluk sultan Muizuddin Bahram murdered in 1242, the nobles of Delhi Sultanate raised Ala-ud-din Masud, a grandson of Iltutmish through his son Rukn ud-Din Firuz , to the throne. Muizuddin Bahram , another son of Iltutmish, had succeeded the throne after his sister Raziya Sultana. Ala-ud-din Masud proved to be a depraved and licentious ruler. In June 1246 the nobles deposed him and put him into prison, where he was murdered. Ala-ud-din Masud had reigned for four year. In 1246 he was deposed by the nobles and was succeeded to the Slave throne by his cousin Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246–66), grandson of Iltutmish through his son Nasiruddin Mahmud. 

Mysore Palace / Image Credit A fine specimen of Indo-Saracenic style of architecture, Mysore Palace is a wonderful feat of engineering which makes it a huge drawcard for millions of tourists every year.  Also known as ‘Amba Palace’, the Mysore Palace was built over a period of 15 years at the beginning of the 20th century at a cost estimated at the time to be around 4 million Indian rupees. A treasure-trove of exquisite sculptures and works of art, the structure features stained glass ceilings and Italian crystal chandeliers.  This Mysore’s most enduring symbol is a testament to the pomp and grandeur of one of India's notably wealthy princely states-  Wadiyar dynasty.   Designed by an English architect, Henry Irwin, the Mysore Palace is at its exuberant best during 10-day Dusshera festival when the stunning palace is illuminated at night by thousands of bulbs. 

Sheesha Mahal,  Mehrangarh Fort / Image credit Emphatically not to be missed while you're in Jodhpur is a visit to the historic Mehrangarh Fort. This impressive fort, whose ramparts rise from a sheer-sided sandstone outcrop, houses several beautiful palaces, temples and gardens. As you enter the crenelated walls of the fort through its arched gates, it is like stepping into the medieval past.    Mehrangarh Fort / Image Credit Crowning a perpendicular cliff, the Mehrangarh Fort was founded by Rao Jodha in 1459 AD , around which the city grew. Within it, the fort contains the Maharaja's palace, several temples and an extensive garden. Highlights of the fort include Moti Mahal (Pearl Hall), Sheesh Mahal (Mirror Hall), Phool Mahal (Flower Hall), Zenana Deodi where the king’s wives spent their time, Chamunda Mataji Temple and a museum.

    Mayadevi_Temple_in_Lumbini / Image credit Located in the Rupandehi District in Nepal, Lumbini is the spiritual centre of Buddhism. For Buddhists, a visit to this Buddhist site is one the most important religious and spiritual journeys of their life. The reason is not far to seek.  It was in Lumbini that the Buddha, one of history’s greatest teachers, was born. Its central temple, Maya Devi Temple, is an obligatory stop on the Buddhist pilgrimage circuit. Unsurprisingly, this UNESCO World Heritage–listed site is a huge drawcard for the Buddhist pilgrims from around the world for centuries. According to the  Lumbini Pillar Edict (also known as  Rummindei Pillar Inscription)  in Nepal,  Mauryan Emperor Ashoka travelled to Lumbini  in 249 BC  and constructed four stupas and erected a stone pillar with a figure of a horse on top. Lumbini is one of the four main sacred sites of the Buddhist religion. Other three holy places are Bodh Gaya (Tree ...

                                                                                  Karla Caves / Image Credit 8 km from the hill station of Lonavala in Maharashtra, Karla is home to awe-inspiring Buddhist caves dating back to 2nd century BC. The most striking highlight of these caves is the presence of a deep apsidal chaitya hall cut in solid rock which is hailed as the largest in India. Chaitya is a sacred spot or shrine indigenous to Buddhism. Made in the first century BC, the chaitya of Karla is cut 124 feet deep into the rock. Karla cave is much developed in size and splendour when compared to other caves of that period.  The columns of the chaitya are ornately carved and each of them is set a square stepped plinth. Each of 37 pillars spo...

                                             Corbusier boating at Sukhna Lake/ Image Source Chandigarh came into being thanks to the need of a new capital city to serve as the capital of the state of Punjab. The partition of Punjab, as a corollary to the partition of British India into the two nations of India and Pakistan in 1947, resulted in the incorporation of Lahore in Pakistan.  As no other city was considered to be fit for being the capital of Punjab, the idea of building a new city gained ground.  Chandigarh, literally meaning "the fort of Chandi", is named after Chandi Mandir, a temple of goddess Chandi, situated in the Panchkula District of the state of Haryana. The famous French architect and urban planner, Le Corbusier, was entrusted with the task of designing the city. Today Chandigarh is a union territory serving as the capital of...

                                   Virupaksha Temple-Hampi / Image Credit   Q.1. Who among the following Bahmani rulers was married to the daughter of Vijayanagar ruler Dev Raya I? (a) Firuz Shah Bahmani (b) Alauddin Hasan Bahmani (c) Ahmed Shah  (d) Muhammad Shah III  Q.2. Which of the following foreign travellers had visited the court of Deve Raya I? (a) Ibn Batuta (b) Nicolo de Conti (c) Abdur Razzak (d) Domingo Paes Q.3. Which of the following foreign travellers had visited the court of Deve Raya II? (a) Ibn Batuta (b) Nicolo de Conti (c) Abdur Razzak (d) Domingo Paes Q.4. The permission of which Vijayanagara emperors was solicited by Francisco Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor of Goa in India, to build a fort at Bhatkal? (a) Devaraya I (b) Devaraya II (c) Krishnadevaraya  (d) Virupaksha Raya Q.5. The Battle of Talikota between Vijayanagara empire and the M...

Q.1. Who among the following was the Delhi Sultanate ruler when the Vijayanagara Empire came into existence?  (a) Muhammad bin Tughlaq (b) Giyas-ud-din Tughlaq (c) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (d) Khizr Khan Q.2. Which of the foreign travelers had visited the Vijayanagara empire during the reign of Krishnadevaraya? (a) Duarte Barbosa (b) Domingo Paes  (c) Abdur Razzaq (d) Both a and b  Q.3. Which of the following Vijayanagara rulers had earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara? (a) Deva Raya II (b) Virupaksha Raya (c) Krishnadeva Raya (d) Harihara I Q.4. Which of the following was a bone of contention between Vijayanagara empire and Bahmani Sultanate?  (a) Bijapur (b) Gulbarga (c) Raichur Doab (d) Golconda  Q.5. The correct chronological order in which the following dynasties of the Vijayanagara empire were established: (i) Saluva Dynsty (ii) Tuluva dynasty (iii) Sangama Dynasty (iv) Aravidu dynasty (a) II, I,III,IV (b) II, I, IV,III (c) I, II, IV,III (d)...

                                                  Hampi Vijayanagara empire / Image Credit Q.1. Who was the founder of Vijayanagar Empire? (a) Harihara I and Bukka I (b) Krishnadeva Raya (c) Deva Raya (d) Narasimha Saluva Q.2. Vijayanagara kingdom was established on the banks of which river? (a) Godavari (b) Krishna (c) Kaveri (d) Tungabhadra Q.3. Which of the following is the ruined capital of Vijayanagara Empire?  (a) Hampi (b) Halebid (c) Pattadakal (d) Madurai  Q.4. The distinction of bringing ruins of Vijayanagar empire at Hampi to light is given to  (a) T. S. Burt  (b) Colonel Colin MacKenzie  (c) C. J. Franklin (d) John Marshal Q.5. Vijayanagara rulers adopted the emblem of the ‘varaha’ or boar. The symbol was earlier a royal insignia of which of the following kingdoms?  (a) Hoysalas (b) Kakatiyas (c) C...